THE  LIBRARY 


'^ 


OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY,?^ 
OF  CALIFORNIA 
LOS  ANGELES 


-^  h    / 


iG^i(^ 


UNiVL  oi  CALIFORNIA 


iJ^ 


LOS  ANGELES 
LIBRARY 


V 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2008  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/effectivespeakinOOphil 


EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 


AN  EXPOSITION  OF  THE  LAWS 
OF  EFFECTIVENESS  IN  THE 
CHOICE  OF  MATERIAL  IN  SPEECH, 
WITH    EXAMPLES    AND     EXERCISES 


BY 

ARTHUR  EDWARD  PHILLIPS 

Aatfaor  of    "The  Tone  System";     Director,    Department   of     Public    Speakine,    tlia 

Theological  Seminary  of  the  Evaneelical  Lutheran  Church  at  Chicago; 

Principal,  Phillips  School  of   Oratory,  Chicago 


A  '^  ''^ '?  '^ 


CHICAGO 

THE  NEWTON  COMPANY 

1922 


iiOS 


k    r 


Copyright.  1908 

BY 
ARTHUR  EDWARD  PHlLLIPS 

All  rights  reservea 


^  <  '. 


TO 

MY  WIFE 
THIS  BOOK  IS  LOVINGLY  DEDICATED 


4-5 


PEEFACB 

;At  the  risk  of  being  thought  egotistical,  I  have  deemed 
it  wise  to  set  down  a  plain  unvarnished  tale  of  the  making 
of  this  volume. 

About  fifteen  years  ago,  when  I  first  began  to  teach 
the  Art  of  Expression,  I  found  a  constant  demand  for 
instruction  in  Public  Speaking.  The  student  would  ask, 
"Can  you  give  me  some  definite  steps  which,  if  followed, 
would  lead  to  confidence  and  power  when  I  seek  to  per- 
suade or  convince  ?  Are  there  any  laws  or  rules  that  would 
be  direct,  practical  helps  ?"  And  I  found  myself  compelled 
to  admit  that  I  knew  of  very  few;  that  all  the  writers 
on  Khetoric,  from  Aristotle  down,  also  the  authorities  on 
Logic  and  Argumentation,  failed  right  here.  True,  there 
were  many  isolated  aids,  but  nothing  like  a  well-ordered, 
practical  system  was  to  be  found.  '  In  fact,  there  was  more 
than  a  half  truth  in  the  couplet : 

"All  a  rlictorician's  rules 
Teach  him  but  to  name  his  tools." 

These  conditions  in  respect  to  the  field  of  Public  Speak- 
ing constantly  forced  themselves  upon  me.  ,J  kept  asking 
myself,  is  it  possible  that  a  department  of  such  vast  im- 
portance; as  that  of  social,  business  and  professional  speech 
must  rely  for  its  effectiveness  almost  solely  on  impulse? 

5 


6  PEEFACE 

Can  it  be  that  success  in  attaining  one's  end  must  be 
looked  upon  as  mainly  a  matter  of  chance?  And  this  in 
the  face  of  order  and  system  in  almost  every  other  depart- 
ment of  human  endeavor?  I  could  not  believe  it.  And 
so  resolved  to  devote  a  goodly  portion  of  my  time  to  the 
careful  study  and  investigation  of  the  whole  problem  of 
effectiveness  in  speaking.  With  a  few  interruptions,  I 
have  devoted  about  half  my  time  to  this  investigation  for 
fifteen  years,  and,  at  last,  feel  prepared  to  declare  authori- 
tatively that  effective  speaking  is  based  on  laws,  that 
these  laws  permit  of  practical  application,  and  that  in 
this  work  is  now  formulated  a  method  by  which  any 
one,  with  a  reasonable  amount  of  faithful  study  and 
practice,  can  feel  sure  he  is  moving  along  ^right  lines  and 
can  markedly  increase  his  speaking  power.  > 

InvestigoMon  Deductive  and  Inductive.  ^My  method  of 
investigation  was  both  deductive  and  inductive.  I  began 
a  restudy  of  the  representative  works  on  speaking  and 
rhetoric.  This  investigation  included,  among  others,  the 
works  of  Aristotle,  Quintilian,  Cicero,  Whately,  Camp- 
bell, Blair,  Hill,  Genung,  Bautain,  Karnes.  This  careful 
restudy  led  me  to  the  conclusion  that  little  that  was  new 
had  been  added  to  Aristotle,  and  that  while  Aristotle  was 
masterly  in  his  analysis,  he  failed  to  present  a  construct- 
ive system  that  could  he  of  daily  use  to  the  tvjentieth  cen- 
tury speaker.. 

Analysis  of  Master  Speeches.  Coincident  with  this  study 
of  the  great  rhetorical  authorities,  (l  began  a  systematic 
examination  of  the  speeches  of  master  speakers  of  all 
ages  and  all  countries — orators  of  the  bar,  of  the  pulpit, 
of  the  deliberative  assembly,  orators  of  agitation  and  re- 


PREFACE  7 

form,  orators  of  the  lyceum.  Also  I  included  in  my  task 
a  careful  study  of  the  master  speakers  in  epic,  novel  and 
drama,  including  Shakespeare,  Milton,  Homer,  Hugo, 
Dante.  All  of  these  were  carefully  examined  with  regard 
to  what  they  could  teach  as  to  effectiveness  in  speech — 
what,  if  anything,  there  seemed  to  be  agreement  upon. ) 

Study  of  Contemporary  SpeaJcing.  Besides  these  inves- 
tigations,/! carried  my  study  into  the  field  of  practi- 
cal modern  life.  Three  speakers  talk  to  the  same  audi- 
ence. Only  one  succeeds.  Why?'  Three  salesmen  seek  to 
sell  the  same  article.  Why  does  salesman.  B  make  sales 
where  the  others  could  not  ?  Two  teachers  talk  on  the 
same  topic — one  attains  a  result,  the  other  fails.  (AYherein 
is  the  diiference?  Why  does  one  speaker  tire,  the  other 
interest  ?  Constantly  I  made  studies  of  actual  speaking  in 
modern  life.  J 

Psychological  Research.  Further,  I  carried  the  study 
into  the  field  of  Psychology.  What  are  the  laws  of  impres- 
sion, if  any?  Could  Psychology  say  why  one  thing  would 
likely  be  remembered,  why  another  thing  would  not  ?  Why 
one  statement  would  sway  an  audience,  why  another  would 
not?  How  far  did  the  latest  psychic  discoveries  furnish 
reliable  conclusions  in  respect  to  different  methods  in  argu- 
mentation, in  clioice  of  material,  in  expression  ?  All  this 
was  carefully  studied  and  noted. 

Conclusions  Drawn.  These  various  lines  of  investigation 
completed,  a  tabulation  and  comparison  of  the  results 
showed  such  marked  agreement  as  to  force  upon  me  cer- 
tain conclusions  which  warrant  the  term  authoritative. 
Jtn  every  field  of  investigation  it  was  found  that  certain 
laws  unquestionably  governed  effectiveness,  and  that  while 


g  PREFACE 

there  might  be  infinite  variety  in  the  adaptation  to  given 
ends,  it  was  a  variety  within  a  ifnity. ) 

The  Constructive  Problem.  The  constructive  problem 
then  presented  itself.  jEow  could  these  laws  be  formu- 
lated into  a  working  system  that  would  proceed  in  logical, 
natural  sequence,  and  that  could  be  applied  with  reason- 
able facility.  In  other  words,  how  could  there  be  formed 
an  art  of  speaking  that  could  be  acquired  with  a  fair  de- 
gree of  ease,  and  also,  while  insisting  on  ^fundamentals, 
would  give  free  play  to  the  individuality.^^  Here  much 
reflection  and  experiment  were  necessary.  Ilnally,  how- 
ever, a  series  of  steps  was  devised  which  met  these  de- 
mands. \ 

The  Especial  Value  of  the  Work.  This,  then,  in  brief, 
is  the  story  of  this  work.  (The  book  presents  in  a  prac- 
ticable way  the  essentials  of  effectiveness  in  all  depart- 
ments of  speaking,  whether  it  be  impressiveness,  entertain- 
ment, convincingness,  persuasion.  Instead  of  allowing 
blind  impulse  to  govern,  this  volume  trains  the  judgment 
in  the  use  of  the  great  psychological  principles  that  gov- 
ern success  in  speech.  Also,  it  offers  a  logical  way  to 
effective  Extemporaneous  Speaking. 

The  book  is  in  no  sense  experimental.  All  has  been  suc- 
cessfully taught  by  the  author  in  his  public  and  private 
work  and  has  been  applied  by  the  student  and  the  man 
of  affairs  with  equally  satisfactory  results.  In  substance 
the  book  is  the  transference  to  the  printed  page  of  the 
methods  of  the  autnor's  class  room  which  have  achieved 
success.     It  is  a  writer's  and  speaker's  workshop.  ' 

While  the  preparation  of  this  work  has  been  essentially 
personal,  special  thanks  are  given  to  Mr.  Edgar  Newton 


PREFACE 


Phillips  for  his  many  valuable  criticisms  and  other  prac- 
tical help,  and  also  a  word  of  appreciation  is  due  that 
great  body  of  students  whose  oratorical  difficulties  have 
been  the  author's  spur. 


It  will  be  observed  that  this  volume  does  not  discuss 
effectiveness  in  respect  to  Deliver}'.  Voice,  Action  and 
Expression  have  been  treated  in  the  author's  work,  ''The 
Tone  System,"  and  will  be  discussed  further  in  volumes  to 
follow.  ) 

Akthur  E.  Phillips. 

Chicago,  November,  1908. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER.  PAGE. 

I.  The  Importance  op  ErrECTivE  Speaking 13 

II.  The  General  Ends 17 

III.  The  Principle  of  Eeference  to  Experience 28 

IV.  Eeference  to  Experience  and  the  General  Ends.  37 
V.  Action  and  the  Impelling  Motives Qs) 

VI.     Entertainment  and  the  Factors  of  Intehssting- 

NESS 63 

VII.  Cumulation    ■.. 79 

VIII,  Assertions  and  the  Four  Forms  of  Support (|I> 

IX.  Eestatement    91 

X.  Eestatement  (Continued)   97 

XI.  General  Illustration   104 

XII.  General  Illustration   (Continued) 114 

XIII.  Specific  Instance  121 

XIV.  Specific  Instance   (Continued) 128 

XV.  Testemont    134 

XVI.  Additional  Eemarks  on  the  Four  Forms  of  Sup- 
port     141 

XVII.  The  Statement  of  Aim  and  the  Central  Idea  ....  146 

XVni.  The  Central  Idea  (Continued) '. . .  153  . 

XIX.  The  Sl*b-Ideas   165 

XX.  The  Introduction  and  the  Conclusion 172 

XXI.  Oratorical  Style   181 

XXII.  Self  Questioning  202 

XXIII.  Eeading    207 

XXIV.  The  After-Dinner  Speech 214 

XXV.  Summary   219 

Outune  for  Speech 222 

Outline  of  Principles 223 

Exercises    227 

List  of  Studies 291 

Questions 301 


EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING. 


CHAPTEK  I. 

THE  IMPORTANCE  OP  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING. 

When  we  realize  that  speech,  spoken  and  written,  is  the 
medium  by  which  men  must  convey  their  ideas;  that  it  is 
the  only  vehicle  for  communicating  truth;  that  society, 
individually  and  collectively,  every  moment  may  be  swayed 
and  molded  by  it;  that  it  is,  in  fact,  the  very  foundation 
of  intellectual  and  moral  progress,  the  question  of  its 
effectiveness  is  seen  to  be  of  vital  moment. 

The  question  becomes  of  even  greater  concern  when  we 
consider  how  much  of  speech  fails  of  its  purpose."^  The 
teacher  seeks  to  impart  his  knowledge,  and  discovers  that 
the  pupils  do  not  comprehend;  the  preacher  discourses 
patiently  to  his  congregation,  but  fails  to  influence;  the 
lawyer  talks  earnestly  to  the  jury,  but  loses  his  case;  the 
salesman  dilates  upon  his  wares,  but  makes  no  sales;  the 
father  talks  to  the  son,  but  secures  no  reform;  the  poli- 
tician harangues  the  crowd,  but  fails  of  election.  And 
this,  though  the  teacher  has  Important  history  to  impart, 
the  preacher  golden  truths,  the  lawj-er  unquestioned  facta, 
the  salesman  excellent  wares,  the  father  good  counsel,  the 
politician  a  just  policy !    All  fail ! 

In  the  course  of  the  author's  professional  duties  a  great 
number  of  speeches  have  come  into  his  hands  for  crlti- 

13 


14  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

cism,  from  students  of  law  schools,  theological  seminaries, 
and  universities;  from  lawyers,  preachers  and  political 
speakers,  and  with  careful  regard  for  the  truth  it  must 
be  said  that  a  large  percentage  evince  little  or  no  apprecia- 
tion of  the  principles  that  govern  effectiveness  in  speaking. 
Commonly  manifest  is  a  failure  to  understand  clearly  what 
constitutes  a  central  idea,  and  what  governs  its  scope;  a 
disregard  of  the  psychology  of  introduction,  ignorance  of 
the  law  of  selection  and  valuation  of  material,  no  appre- 
ciation of  the  distinguishing  characteristics  of  oratorical 
style  which  are  born  of  the  restrictions,  real  and  conven- 
tional, that  govern  oral  speech — in  all,  a  deplorable  indif- 
ference to  the  factors  of  convincingness. 

The  main  reason  for  this  state  of  things  is  a  failure  to 
realize  that  effective  speaking  is  an  art,  an  art  founded 
upon  the  science  of  psychology,  an  art  the  mastery  of 
which  demands  the  same  earnest  thought,  the  same  per- 
sistent practice,  the  same  careful  technique  as  the  mas- 
tery of  painting  or  music.  The  common  error  in  regard 
to  speaking  is  the  assumption  that  all  that  is  necessary 
is  to  have  "something  to  say."  Utterly  false!  Unless 
that  "something  to  say"  is  said  in  accordance  with  the 
laws  of  the  human  mind  which  govern  conviction,  it  might 
as  well  be  spoken  to  the  winds.  iLet  anyone  who  thinks  that 
"something  to  say"  is  the  only  requisite  to  effectiveness  in 
speaking  ask  himself  how  much  of  all  he  has  heard  has 
left  a  permanent  impression  upon  his  mind,  and  he  will 
at  once  realize  how  necessary  is  a  knowledge  of  the  art  of 
successful  speaking.  Or  let  him  study  the  story  of  human 
progress.  There  he  will  see  how  slow  is  truth  to  find  ac- 
ceptance.    Let  him  think  how  many  human  lives  were 


IMPORTANCE  OF  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING  15 

sacrificed  before  the  truth  could  be  got  into  the  mind  that 
devils  did  not  have  human  habitations;  let  him  think  of 
the  argument  and  eloquence  needed  before  men  could  be 
convinced  that  slavery  was  wrong;  and  he  must  surely 
admit  that  the  importance  of  studying  how  best  to  form 
an  opinion  and  how  best  to  convey  it  is  indeed  great. 

I'he  modern  speaker,  then,  must  rid  himself  of  the 
notion  that  "something  to  say"  is  sufficient;  that  the 
impulsive  utterance  of  an  idea  will  of  itself  secure  belief 
or  action.  He  must  realize  that  besides  "something  to 
say"  he  must  learn  how  best  to  convey  it.  )He  must  remem- 
ber that  the  Chathams  and  the  Websters  and  the  Beechera 
not  only  had  "something  to  say,"  but  that  they  realized 
that  careful  study  had  to  be  given  to  the  order  and  man- 
ner of  its  presentation.  The  truly  effective  speakers  never 
have  enthroned  blind  impulse  as  their  god.  They  have 
controlled  and  directed  it  with  the  judgment  bom  of  a 
careful  study  of  the  laws  governing  action  and  belief. 
They  recognized  that  entrenched  error,  prejudice,  self- 
interest,  conceit,  doubt,  fear,  desire,  ignorance,  are  bar- 
riers to  conviction,  and  that  these  barriers  could  only  be 
broken  down  or  overcome  by  the  application  of  certain 
principles  of  psychology.  JThe  speaker,  if  he  would  achieve 
his  purpose,  and  achieve  it  with  the  least  effort — and  that 
is  art — must  realize  that  every  step  in  the  development  of 
a  speech  demands  the  exercise  of  the  judgment  upon  the 
psychology  of  impression.  His  business  is  objective.  It 
concerns  the  listener.  It  is  a  question  of  how  can  I  get 
my  listener  to  see  my  thought  as  clearly  as  I  see  it,  to  feel 
it  as  vividly  as  I  feel  it,  to  believe  it  as  deeply  as  I  believe 
it,  to  act  upon  it  as  sincerely  as  I  act  upon  it?  ^ 


16  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

Appreciation  of  all  this  will  reveal  to  him  that  nothing 
can  be  left  to  haphazard;  that  in  a  given  case  the  ques- 
tion of  the  central  idea,  its  scope  and  aptness,  the  factors 
of  interestingness  and  convincingness,  the  choice  and  val- 
uation of  sub-ideas,  their  arrangement,  the  kind  and  de- 
gree of  amplification,  the  use  of  specific  and  general  illus- 
tration— all  this  and  much  more  must  be  given  the  closest 
consideration  and  a  decision  reached  in  accordance  with 
the  principles  of  psychology  that  govern  the  particular 
case.  Such  must  be  the  course  of  the  speaker  who  would 
deal  justly  with  the  listener,  and  such  course  constitutes 
the  art  of  effective  speaking. 

When  this  course  is  followed  by  the  average  speaker; 
when  the  man  who  has  something  to  say  will  devote  time 
and  thought  to  the  application  of  the  psj'chological  princi- 
ples by  which  this  "something  to  say*'  becomes  effective, 
there  will  be  a  more  rapid  spread  of  the  truth.  Speakers, 
testing  tlieir  utterance  by  these  principles,  will  develop  a 
feeling  of  oratorical  duty  that  will  impel  them  to  scorn 
the  false.  They  will  enthrone  an  educated  judgment  as 
the  arbiter  of  what  and  when  it  is  wise  to  speak,  and  the 
public  will  be  guaranteed  a  real  speech — a  worthy  idea 
worthily  presented.  Then  many  of  the  errors  that  are 
now  dying  hard  will  quickly  pass  away,  and  an  impetus 
will  be  given  to  real  civilization  that  is  almost  incalculable. 


CHAPTER  II. 


THE  GENERAL  ENDS. 


(1)  An  architect  before  planning  his  building  must 
know  the  purpose  for  which  the  structure  is  intended — 
whether  it  is  to  be  used  as  a  warehouse,  an  office  building, 
a  church,  or  a  private  residence — and  the  efficiency  of  his 
work  is  dependent  upon  this  knowledge.  The  same  holds 
true  in  speaking.  The  first  requisite  to  effectiveness  is  a 
knowledge  of  the  purposes  of  speech — a  clear  understand- 
ing of  its  General  Ends.  ^ 

(2)  Difference  of  opinion  has  existed  as  to  the  nature 
and  number  of  these  Ends.  Aristotle  divided  speech  into 
three  branches — DeUberative,  Judicial,  and  Demonstra- 
tive; the  Deliberative  denoting  the  oratory  of  political 
bodies,  the  Judicial  that  of  the  law,  and  the  Demonstra- 
tive embracing  the  oratory  of  popular  assemblicB.  The 
Ends  of  these  three  were,  respectively,  to  move,  to  con- 
vince, to  praise  or  blame.  Quintilian,  in  his  "Institutes 
of  Oratory"  (Book  III,  Chapter  4),  enters  into  a  detailed 
discussion  regarding  the  various  classifications  preceding 
his  time,  and  concludes  that  the  most  satisfactory  is 
that  of  Aristotle,  though  in  speaking  specifically  he  men- 
tions the  three  Ends  as  "to  inform,  to  move,  to  please" 
(Book  III,  Chapter  5),  which  would  indicate  a  slight  devi- 
ation from  the  view  of  the  great  rhetorician.  ^ 

17 


18  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

(3)  Coming  to  modern  treatises,  we  find  that  Blair,  in 
his  "Lectures  on  Rhetoric  and  Belles  Lettres,"  ignores  the 
Ends  as  such  and  recognizes  the  divisions  of  oratory  as 
three — the  oratory  of  the  bar,  the  oratory  of  the  pulpit, 
and  the  oratory  of  the  popular  assembly.  WTiately  dis- 
cusses the  Ends  of  speech  as  concerned  with  the  Under- 
standing and  the  Will.  Bain  adds  to  this  the  appeal  to  the 
emotions,  and  Campbell,  in  his  "Pliilosophy  of  Rhetoric" 
(Book  I,  Chapter  1),  regards  speech  as  seeking  either  to 
enlighten  the  understanding,  please  the  imagination,  move 
the  passions,  or  influence  the  will.  Day,  in  his  "Art  of 
Discourse,"  classes  the  Ends  under  "Explanation,  Excita- 
tion, Confirmation,  Persuasion."  It  will  be  seen  that 
authorities  differ,  and  the  question  arises  as  to  what  really 
constitute  the  Ends. 

(4)  All  the  classifications  we  have  quoted  are  open  to 
criticism.  They  fail  to  adequately  differentiate  the  pur- 
poses of  speech  as  found  in  actual  life,  and,  therefore, 
they  fail  to  form  a  satisfactory  basis  on  which  to  build  a 
system  of  instruction  of  practical  value.^ 

(5)  A  humorist  stands  upon  the  lyceum  and  keeps  his 
audience  in  smiles  and  laughter — the  End  of  the  speaker 
here  is  to  give  his  audience  amusement,  to  while  away  an 
hour  pleasantly;  an  orator  dilates  upon  the  nobility  of 
Lincoln — he  seeks  not  to  amuse,  but  impress;  a  scientist 
lectures  to  us  about  the  Nebular  Theory — his  sole  concern 
is  to  have  us  understand;  a  preacher  delivers  an  eloquent 
plea  for  alms — his  aim  is  to  have  us  act ;  a  military  expert 
argues  the  superiority  of  Wellington  over  Napoleon  as  a 
general — he  desires  for  his  view  acceptance.  In  each  of 
the  foregoing  instances  the  End  has  been  different,  and. 


THE  GENERAL  ENDS  19 

as  investigation  fails  to  discover  a  purpose  or  end  outside 
of  these,  we  may  conclude  that  the  General  Ends  of  Speech 
are  five.  The  speaker  wishes  the  listener  to  see — Clearness, 
or  to  feel — Impressiveness,  or  to  accept — Belief,  or  to  do 
— Action,  or  to  enjoy — Entertainment.  Whatever  may  be 
the  topic,  the  end  in  view  will  be  found  under  one  or  a 
combination  of  these  heads. 

(6)f  Clearness.  Clearness  means  apprehension,  percep- 
tion. It  is  the  goal  of  all  who  seek  to  convey  informa- 
tion purely  as  information.  In  this  light  the  attitude  of 
the  listener  toward  the  matter  conveyed,  his  acceptance 
or  non-acceptance,  amusement  or  disgust,  is  not  the  con- 
cern of  the  speaker.  His  duty  is  discharged  if  he  bo 
presents  the  idea  or  ideas  that  all  is  seen  clearly.  Clear- 
ness as  an  End  is  found  in  its  pure  form  in  the  case  of 
an  interpreter.  The  interpreter's  office  is  solely  to  make 
plain  to  the  listener  the  ideas  that  have  been  expressed  in 
a  strange  tongue.  The  effect  of  those  ideas  is  something 
with  which  he  has  nothing  to  do.  As  a  rule,  the  sole  end 
of  a  judge  in  rendering  a  decision  is  Clearness.  It  is  also 
the  End  where  a  railroad  issues  instructions  to  its  em- 
ployes or  a  general  gives  orders  to  his  officers.  It  is  the 
purpose  of  a  witness  when  he  aims  "to  tell  the  truth,  the 
whole  truth  and  nothing  but  the  truth";  of  an  inventor 
when  lecturing  on  the  working  of  his  invention;  of  a 
student  when  reciting  his  lesson  in  the  class  room ;  and  it 
is  the  great  office  of  a  dictionary.  An  example  of  a  speech 
having  Clearness  for  its  End  is  found  in  the  following: 

"I  will  be  brief,  for  my  short  date  of  breath 
Is  not  so  long  as  is  a  tedious  tale. 


go  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

Romeo,  there  dead,  was  husband  to  that  Juliet, 
And  she,  there  dead,  that  Romeo's  faithful  wife : 
I  married  them ;  and  their  stolen  marriage-day 
Was  Tybalt's  doomsday,  whose  untimely  death 
Banish'd  the  new-made  bridegroom  from  this  city ; 
For  whom,  and  not  for  Tybalt,  Juliet  pin'd." 

— Shakespeare,  Romeo  and  Juliet,  v.,  3. 

Here  the  sole  purpose  of  the  Friar  is  to  tell  a  plain  un* 
varnished  tale  of  the  actual  happenings.  (Cleaniess,  then, 
tells  what  ideas  are  and  there  stops.  It  has  no  ulterior 
motive,  no  bias.  Its  duty  is  translation,  reproduction,  a 
presentation  of  the  thing  without  personal  comment  and 
at  no  particular  angle.  It  is  the  specific  business  of  all  who 
seek  to  reproduce  thoughts  solely  for  the  thoughts  them- 
selves. 

(7)  Impressiveness.  Impressiveness  implies  vividness. 
The  idea  is  not  simply  seen,  but  felt.  It  has  emotional  as- 
sociation. The  lecturer  on  literature  desires  that  the  art  of 
Shakespeare  shall  not  only  be  seen,  but  shall  be  pre- 
sented so  as  to  arouse  pleasurable  emotion.  The  eulogist 
intends  his  characterization  of  Lincoln  not  only  to  be  ap- 
prehended, but  also  to  be  productive  of  a  rich,  deep  feeling 
of  affection.  The  preacher  is  not  content  that  the  per- 
sonality of  Christ  shall  be  understood— it  must  stir  the 
soul.  Illustrations  of  this  End  abound.  It  is  the  purpose 
of  the  majority  of  speakers  at  commencements,  funerals, 
festivals,  anniversaries."^  It  is  the  aim  of  the  proud  mother 
when  praising  her  infant,  of  the  soldier  when  extolling 
his  regiment,  of  the  patriot  when  telling  of  his  country's 
achievements.  It  is  the  End  of  Charles  Dickens  in  his 
description  of  Niagara  Falls: 


THE  GENERAL  ENDS  21 

"What  voices  spoke  from  out  the  thundering  water; 
what  faces,  faded  from  the  earth,  looked  out  upon  me  from 
its  gleaming  depths;  what  Heavenly  promise  glistened  in 
those  angel's  tears,  the  drops  of  many  hues,  that  showered 
around,  and  twined  themselves  about  the  gorgeous  arches 
which  the  changing  rainbows  made!  ...  I  think  in 
every  quiet  season  now,  still  do  those  waters  roll  and  leap, 
and  roar  and  tumble,  all  day  long;  still  are  the  rainbows 
spanning  them,  a  hundred  feet  below.  Still  when  the  sun 
is  on  them,  do  they  shine  and  glow  like  molten  gold.  Still, 
when  the  day  is  gloomy,  do  they  fall  like  snow,  or  seem 
to  crumble  away  like  ihe  front  of  a  great  chalk  cliff,  or 
roll  down  the  rock  like  dense  white  smoke.  But  always 
does  the  mighty  stream  appear  to  die  as  it  comes  down, 
and  always  from  its  unfathomable  grave  arises  that  tre- 
mendous ghost  of  spray  and  mist  which  is  never  laid: 
which  has  haunted  this  place  with  the  same  dread  solem- 
nity since  darkness  brooded  on  the  deep,  and  that  first 
flood  before  the  Deluge — Light — came  rushing  on  Crea- 
tion at  the  word  of  God." 

Whenever  the  specific  aim  is  to  arouse  in  the  listener 
emotional  association,  the  End  is  Impressiveness.^ 

(8),  Belief.  Belief  is  acceptance.  The  speaker  is  not  con- 
tent that  the  listener  shall  see  or  feel.  The  subject-matter 
must  come  into  his  mind  as  reality — truth.  He  must  say 
in  effect,  "that  is  so,"  "you  are  right,"  "I  believe."  It 
demands,  however,  no  action,  but  discusses  matters  of 
opinion,  such  as  which  of  two  philosophies  exercises  the 
greater  influence,  which  course  would  achieve  the  greater 
good,  which  is  the  better  policy,  and  the  like.^  Belief  is 
the  End  in  the  following: 


2Z  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

"That  you  have  wrong'd  me  doth  appear  in  this : 
You  have  condemn'd  and  noted  Lucius  Pella 
For  taking  bribes  here  of  the  Sardians; 
Wherein  my  letters,  praying  on  his  side, 
Because  I  knew  the  man,  were  slighted  off." 

— Shakespeare,  Julius  Caesar,  iv.,  3. 

In  every  case  where  the  dominant  motive  of  the  speaker  is 
to  secure  acceptance  of  his  idea  the  End  is  Belief.  ) 

(9) [Action.  Action  is  doing.  It  is  never  passive.  The 
end  of  the  speaker  can  be  denoted  as  Action,  therefore, 
when  his  dominant  desire  is  to  have  the  listener  act — to  be, 
to  go,  to  give,  to  bring,  to  join — to  do.  It  is  the  aim,  imme- 
diate or  remote  of  the  major  portion  of  the  spoken  word. 
It  is  the  main  concern  of  the  preacher,  the  political  speaker, 
the  merchant,  the  salesman — of  all  who  seek  to  sway.  Ac- 
tion may  demand,  as  preliminary  steps,  Clearness,  Impres- 
siveness.  Belief,  but  it  is  more  than  any  or  all  of  these. 
It  says  not  only  must  you  see,  feel,  accept;  you  must  act, 
you  must  attest  your  sight,  your  feeling,  your  belief,  by 
your  works.   Example : 

"Once  more  unto  the  breach,  dear  friends,  once  more ; 

Or  close  the  wall  up  with  our  English  dead ! 

.    .     .     On,  on,  you  noblest  English, 

Whose  blood  is  fet  from  fathers  of  war-proof ! 

Fathers  that,  like  so  many  Alexanders, 

Have  in  these  parts  from  morn  till  even  fought. 

And  sheath'd  their  swords  for  lack  of  argument. 

Dishonor  not  your  mothers;  now  attest 

That  those  whom  you  call'd  fathers  did  beget  you ! 


THE  GENERAL  ENDS  23 

Be  copy  now  to  men  of  grosser  blood, 
And  teach  them  how  to  war ! — And  you,  good  yeomen, 
Whose  limbs  were  made  in  England,  show  us  here 
The  mettle  of  your  pasture." 

— Shakespeare,  King  Heny  V.,  iii.,  1, 

(10)  (^Entertainment.  Entertainment  as  an  End  is  con- 
cerned with  amusement.  It  arouses  pleasant  feelings,  in- 
terests, mildly  delights  or  produces  hearty  laughter.  It 
becomes  the  End  of  the  speaker  whenever  he  places  the 
amusement  of  the  listener  above  all  else.  It  is  the  dis- 
tinctive province  of  the  speaker  in  the  social  circle  and  on 
the  lyceum.  There,  as  a  rule,  pleasure  for  its  own  sake 
transcends  in  importance  Belief  or  Action.  The  listener 
cares  not  whether  he  believes  or  does,  so  long  as  he  en- 
joys. Myth,  exaggeration,  the  ridiculous,  the  strange,  the 
incongruous,  here  find  their  proper  place,  y  Entertainment 
is  the  End  in  the  following : 

"One  of  the  brightest  gems  in  New  England  weather  is 
the  dazzling  uncertainty  of  it.  There  is  only  one  thing 
certain  about  it — you  are  certain  there  is  going  to  be 
plenty  of  weather — a  perfect  grand  review;  but  you  can 
never  tell  which  end  of  the  procession  is  going  to  move 
first.  You  fix  up  for  the  drought;  you  leave  your  um- 
brella in  the  house  and  sally  out  with  your  sprinkling-pot, 
and  ten  to  one  you  get  drowned  You  make  up  your  mind 
that  the  earthquake  is  due;  you  stand  from  under  and 
take  hold  of  something  to  steady  yourself,  and  the  first 
thing  you  know  you  get  struck  by  lightning.  These  are 
great  disappomtments.  But  they  can't  be  helped." — Mark 
Twain. 


24  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

When  the  all  important  thing  is  to  amuse,  the  speaker's 
End  is  properly  designated  as  Entertainment.  ) 

(11)  Illustrations  of  Distinction.  The  distinction  be- 
tween the  Five  General  Ends  becomes  unmistakable  when 
we  consider  them  in  relation  to  a  particular  topic.  If  my 
subject  is  Altruism  and  I  undertake  to  explain  it,  and 
care  not  whether  my  listener  approves  of  it,  or  is  moved 
by  it,  my  End  is  Clearness.  If  I  wish  to  arouse  his  emo- 
tions in  regard  to  it,  my  End  is  Impressiveness.  If  I 
assert  that  Altruism  is  wise  and  wish  him  to  agree  with 
me,  my  End  is  Belief.  If  I  wish  him  to  advocate  it,  my 
End  is  Action,  and  if  I  dilate  on  it  mainly  to  give  him 
pleasure^  my  End  is  Entertainment. 

( 12 )(^ Speaking  broadly.  Clearness  calls  upon  the  Per- 
ceptive Faculties,  Impressiveness  stirs  the  Emotions,  Be- 
lief addresses  itself  to  the  Eeason,  Action  appeals  to  the 
Passions  and  the  Will,  Entertainment  enlists  the  Fancy./ 

(13)  Audience  May  Govern  the  ^nt?.  ^^ometimes  the 
audience  may  govern  the  determination  of  the  General 
End.  If  the  subject  is  the  Resurrection  and  I  am  to  speak 
before  a  church  audience,  my  End  would  be  Impressive- 
ness. Such  an  audience  would  already  believe,  and  the 
need  would  be  to  make  the  fact  of  the  Resurrection  more 
impressive.  If,  however,  my  listeners  are  a  primary  class 
in  a  Sunday  school,  the  great  need  would  be  Clearness. 
If,  again,  my  hearers  are  Agnostics,  the  aim  would  be 
Belief.  We  see,  then,  that  the  particular  audience  may 
control  the  choice  of  the  General  End. 

(l-i)  General  Ends  and  Means  to  an  End.<  A  means  to 
an  End  must  not  be  confused  with  the  End  itself^'  In  a 
epeech  on  "The  Single  Tax"  ray  General  End  is  Action; 


THE  GENERAL  ENDS  26 

I  wish  my  listener  to  vote  for  this  method  of  taxation. 
But  the  audience  being  ignorant  of  the  subject,  my  first 
duty  is  to  make  it  clear;  this  Clearness,  however,  is  not 
an  End — it  is  only  a  means  to  the  real  End,  Action?  I 
talk  on  "The  Personality  of  Lincoln,"  and  my  End  is  Im- 
pressiveness,  but  as  the  sense  in  which  I  use  the  term 
"personality"  must  be  made  intelligible,  my  first  step  is 
Clearness.  Here,  again.  Clearness  is  simply  a  means.  The 
General  End  must  be  distinguished  from  the  means  to 
that  End. 

(15)  Importance  of  the  General  Ends.  JThe  detennina- 
tion  of  the  General  End  is  of  the  utmost  importance.  It 
enables  the  speaker  to  avoid  that  pit  into  which  so  many 
fall — indefiniteness.  What  would  we  think  of  a  person 
who  made  extensive  preparations  for  a  journey,  and  when 
asked  his  destination  confessed  he  "did  not  know"?  Yet 
this  is  the  every-day  occurrence  in  the  realm  of  speaking. 
A  hunter  first  wants  to  know  what  kind  of  animal  he  is 
to  kill  before  he  decides  upon  his  weapon;  a  carpenter 
must  know  the  kind  of  work  he  is  to  do  before  he  chooses 
his  tools ,  and  the  speaker,  in  the  same  way,  Wiust  con- 
sider the  nature  of  his  specific  task  before  he  can  effect- 
ively select  his  material.  He  must  bring  before  his  mental 
eye,  as  vividly  and  accurately  as  possible,  his  particular 
listeners,  must  weigh  their  opinions  and  prejudices,  deter- 
mine their  familiarity  or  unfamiliarity  with  topic  and 
their  attitude  towards  it.  These  considerations  are  forced 
upon  him  by  having  to  determine  the  General  End. 

(16)  General  End  Governs  Choice  of  Material.  Further, 
a  careful  decision  as  to  the  General  End  is  vital  because 
the  kind  of  material  needed  varies  with  the  General  End. 


26  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

To  anticipate  very  briefly  succeeding  chapters,  it  will  be 
found  that  when  the  General  End  is  Clearness  the  great 
need  is  for  material  that  is  characterized  by  pure  resem- 
blance, that  when  the  End  is  Impressiveness  the  search  is 
for  matter  and  phrase  that  possess  emotional  power,  that 
when  the  End  is  Belief  the  need  is  for  material  that  has 
actuality,  when  Action  the  Impelling  Motives  must  be 
brought  into  play,  when  Entertainment  the  concern  is 
with  the  Factors  of  Interestingness.  Each  End  has  its 
distinctive  material  and  not  to  determine  intelligently  and 
definitely  the  General  End  is  to  run  the  risk  of  using 
wrong  material,  and,  therefore,  of  inviting  failure. 

(17)  Evils  of  Disregard  of  General  End.  The  harmful 
consequences  due  to  the  disregard  of  this  apparently  minor 
matter  of  determining  the  General  End  are  many  and 
serious.  The  carefully  prepared  half-hour  effort  of  many 
a  preacher  has  been  wasted  because  the  burden  of  his  talk 
was  **believe,"  when  what  he  really  desired  was  Action. 
Already  they  "believed,"  but  they  did  not  do;  and  every 
phrase,  sentence,  paragraph,  every  argument,  should  have 
been  selected  with  especial  regard  to  its  power  to  influence 
the  will.  Often  we  find  teachers  amazed  that  their  stu- 
dents remember  so  little  of  the  lectures.  The  fault  is 
usually  with  the  instructor.  He  has  made  liis  subject 
clear  when  his  duty  was  to  make  it  not  only  clear  but 
impressive. 

(18)  Aspirants  for  honors  upon  the  Lyceum  frequently 
miss  success  because  of  a  disregard  of  the  General  End. 
They  labor  hard  upon  the  lecture,  read  and  re-read  every 
authority  upon  the  subject,  spend  a  score  of  hours  in  de- 
termining the  plan,  give  days  of  thought  to  its  arrange* 


THE  GENERAL  ENDS  27 

ment,  spend  weeks  upon  its  amplification,  rewriting  this 
sentence,  omitting  that,  polishing  this  phrase,  changing 
that,  until  at  last  they  have  constructed  an  excellent 
speech.  And  yet  they  fail !  They  bore.  An  examination 
of  the  lecture  proves  that  they  had  forgotten  in  the  begin- 
ning one  little  detail  that  made  almost  all  that  followed 
a  waste  of  labor.  They  had  forgotten  to  call  up  before 
them  the  average  lyceum  audience  and  with  this  in  view 
determine  the  General  End.  In  a  hazy  way  they  had  pre- 
pared a  lecture  with  the  mind  unconsciously  working  along 
the  lines  of  Belief,  whereas,  had  they  realized  clearly  the 
distinction  between  the  General  Ends,  they  would  have 
seen  that  the  audience  would  come  mainly  for  Entertain- 
ment, that  the  warp  and  woof  of  the  lecture  should  be 
constructed  of  material  that  gave  pleasure.  And  this  slip 
cost  them  their  success.  J.n  every  field  of  speech — profes- 
sional, commercial,  social — the  lack  of  success  can  fre- 
quently be  traced  to  the  failure  to  determine  definitely  the 
General  End,  in  other  words,  to  the  failure  to  start  right. 
(19)  The  first  great  need,  then,  in  attaining  effective- 
ness in  speech  is  the  practical  appreciation  of  the  General 
Ends.  Are  you  going  to  speak  at  a  banquet,  to  help  make 
the  evening  pass  pleasantly? — your  End  is  Entertainment. 
Are  you  going  to  speak  at  a  political  meeting  to  ask  for 
votes? — your  End  is  Action.  Are  you  going  to  talk  on  the 
patriotism  of  Washington? — your  End  is  Impressiveness. 
Are  you  going  to  argue  that  the  American  Republic  will 
endure  ? — your  End  is  Belief.  Are  you  to  explain  "Fletch- 
erism"? — your  End  is  Clearness.  On  every  occasion  con- 
eider  the  subject  in  relation  to  the  particular  audience 
and  consciously  determine  the  General  End.  Then  your 
speech  will  be  built  upon  a  solid  foundation. 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE  PRINCIPLE  OF   KEFERENCE  TO  EXPEBIENCB. 

(1)  Having  perceived  clearly  the  nature  of  tlae  General 
Ends  of  Speech,  the  next  requisite  to  effectiveness  in 
speaking  is  a  vivid  realization  of  the  principles  that  gov- 
ern the  attainment  of  these  Ends.  The  foremost  of  these 
principles  is  that  of  Reference  to  Experience. 

(2)  Definition.  Eeference  to  Experience,  as  here  used, 
means  reference  to  the  known.  The  known  is  that  which 
the  listener  has  seen,  heard,  read,  felt,  believed  or  done, 
and  which  still  exists  in  his  consciousness — ^his  stock  of 
knowledge.  It  embraces  all  those  thoughts,  feelings  and 
happenings  which  are  to  him  real.  Reference  to  Experi- 
ence, then,  means  coming  into  the  listener's  life. 

(3)  Experiences  Direct  and  Indirect.  Experiences  may 
be  resolved  into  two  kinds — Direct  and  Indirect.  Direct 
experiences  include  all  those  sensations,  happenings, 
thoughts,  that  have  been  experienced  by  our  own  senses — •; 
what  the  ears  have  heard,  the  hands  touched,  the  tongue 
tasted,  the  eyes  seen,  the  mind  thought.  Cjndirect  experi- 
ences include  all  those  things  which,  while  not  felt  or  seen 
by  ourselves,  are  accepted  by  us — knowledge  second-hand.. 
We  never  saw  Julius  Caesar,  but  we  accept  it  as  a  reality 
that  he  lived  and  did  certain  things.  We  never  saw  Solo- 
mon's Temple,  but  we  are  sure  that  it  once  existed.  ,  Ref- 

28 


REFEBENCE  TO  EXPERIENCE  <|9 

erence  to  Experience,  therefore,  means  a  reference  to 
those  things  which  constitute  our  stock  of  knowledge, 
whether  acquired  directly  or  indirectly .^ 

(4)  The  Importance  of  the  Principle.  A  moment's  re- 
flection will  make  clear  the  importance  of  this  principle. 
What  things  are  real  to  us  ?  Of  what  things  are  we  moat 
positive?  Those  things  which  we  have  experienced.  We 
know  sugar  is  sweet,  vinegar  is  sour,  fire  bums,  because 
these  things  have  actually  given  us  those  sensations.  The 
certainty  is  born  of  our  actual  life,  and  if  someone  asserts 
the  opposite  we  refuse  to  believe  it.  It  is  contrary  to  our 
experience.  '^Our  own  experience,  then,  is  the  standard 
by  which  we  test  the  truth  or  untruth  of  an  assertion. 
Similarly,  it  is  the  means  of  making  the  unknown  known "'!' 
I  tell  my  friend  a  neighbor  has  bought  a  load  of  alfalfa. 
I  am  unintelligible.  Perceiving  it,  I  continue,  "Alfalfa 
is  a  kind  of  hay,"  and  at  once  a  reasonably  clear  concep- 
tion of  alfalfa  is  formed.  The  unintelligible  has  been 
made  intelligible  by  coming  into  the  listener's  experience,  i 
Keference  to  Experience,  therefore,  is  of  vital  importance 
because  it  materially  helps  the  speaker  to  achieve  his  End. 

(5)  Reference  to  Experience  the  Best  Method  of  At- 
taining End.  ^he  principle  of  Reference  to  Experience 
is  of  importance,  further,  because  it  enables  the  speaker 
to  attain  his  purpose  along  the  right  psychological  line — 
that  of  allowing  the  listener  to  use  his  own  powers.  The 
use  of  this  principle  gives  the  Ustener  or  reader  the  pleas- 
ant feeling  that  he  is  not  driven  or  cajoled,  but  that  he 
sees,  feels,  accepts  or  does  the  thing  desired,  of  his  own 
free  will  and  through  his  own  processes.^yHiO  illustrate: 
When  my  friend  entered  his  home  the  sky  was  eloudlese. 


30  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

An  hour  later  I  come  in  and  say  there  will  be  a  storm. 
He  contradicts  me.  I  then  tell  him  that  heavy  black 
clouds  are  rolling  up  from  the  west,  that  flashes  of  light- 
ning can  be  seen  and  that  the  wind  is  increasing.  He 
now  agrees  with  me.  What  did  I  do?  I  gave  him  three 
facts  that  were  like  his  own  experience  in  respect  to  the 
conditions  generally  preceding  a  storm.  He  came  to  his 
own  conclusion  by  means  of  my  reference  to  his  experi- 
ence. I  simply  called  up  part  of  his  stock  of  knowledge 
applicable  to  the  case — ^he  did  the  rest.  In  place  of  these 
reasons  had  I  said,  "Well,  it  is  about  time  for  a  storm," 
"I  feel  there  will  be  a  storm,"  "The  Farmer's  Almanac 
says  so,"  he  would  not  have  believed  me.  I  would  not 
have  touched  his  experience.  Instead,  I  would  have  been 
trying  to  force  acceptance.  I  really  would  have  been  say- 
ing, "You  must  believe  it  because  I  believe  it."  In  the 
first  instance,  however,  I  recalled  to  his  consciousness  some 
of  his  sub-conscious  knowledge.  I  held  up  to  him  the 
mirror  of  his  own  experience,  and  he  himself  came  to  the 
conclusion. 

(6)  Similarly  in  the  case  of  Action.  I  want  my  friend 
to  read  a  certain  novel.  I  tell  him  it  is  interesting.  But 
I  find  that  statement  alone  does  not  move  him  to  peruse 
it.  I  add  that  it  is  a  fine  love  story,  that  it  is  full  of  inci- 
dents— of  skirmishes  and  rescues — that  are  exciting  yet 
perfectly  probable.  I  tell  him  that  the  characters  are  nat- 
ural, that  the  hero  is  a  magnificent  specimen  of  man- 
hood, the  heroine  a  beautiful  and  self-sacrificing  woman, 
that  it  tells  of  many  things  never  before  heard  of  and  yet 
reasonable,  and  that  there  is  running  through  it  all  a 
splendid  inspiration.     He  now  agrees  to  read  the  book. 


REFERENCE  TO  EXPERIENCE  31 

Why?  I  have  come  into  his  experience  as  to  what  con- 
stitutes "interesting";  to  each  of  my  details  he  has  men- 
tally said,  "yes,  that  would  be  interesting,"  and  thus  his 
decision  to  read  the  volume  is  the  result  of  his  own  proc- 
esses. Had  I  said  to  him  the  book  is  published  by  B.  & 
Co.,  is  well  indexed,  well  chaptered,  well  printed,  and  has 
a  didactic  purpose,  he  would  have  been  influenced  but  lit- 
tle, if  at  all.  These  things  do  not  constitute  part  of  his 
stock  of  experiences  in  respect  to  interestingness,  and  if 
he  read  the  book  it  would  be  done  as  a  personal  favor  and 
not  from  genuine  desire. 

(7)  'Economy  of  Reference  to  Experience.  Further,  by 
the  use  of  Eeference  to  Experience  there  is  attained  that 
great  desideratum  in  all.art — economy  of  time  and  energy. 
In  the  example  of  the  storm,  it  would  take  much  longer 
time  and  involve  the  expenditure  of  much  more  force  to 
convince  my  friend  by  means  of  the  declaration  in  the 
Farmer's  Almanac  than  by  the  references  to  his  experi- 
ence. There  would  arise  a  long  discussion  as  to  the  relia- 
bility in  general  of  weather  almanacs  and  of  the  Farmer's 
Almanac  in  particular.  The  number  of  instances  of  suc- 
cessful prognostication  would  have  to  be  cited,  and  proof 
of  the  truth  of  these  alleged  instances,  the  reliability  of 
those  who  testified,  all  this  and  much  more  might  be  nec- 
essary to  win  even  respectful  consideration,  while,  on  the 
other  hand,  by  the  simple  reference  to  black  clouds,  high 
winds,  flashes  of  lightning,  things  that  come  vividly  into 
the  life  of  the  listener,  Belief  is  attained  almost  instantJy. 
Clearly  tlie  use  of  Eeference  to  Experience  results  in 
economy  of  time  and  effort. 
/  (8)  Speech  Is  Objective.  The  principle  of  Reference  to 


32  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

Experience  derives  its  power  from  the  fact  that  the  proC' 
ess  of  conveying  thought  must  he  objective,  not  subjective. 
The  growth  of  the  idea  in  the  mind,  its  analysis  and  test, 
the  clarification,  as  it  were,  is  essentially  subjective.  But 
the  moment  the  speaker  begins  to  consider  its  transmis- 
Bion  to  the  listener  his  end  is  objective.  The  purpose  in 
speaking  is  to  convey  something  to  others,  to  make  some- 
thing clear  to  them  that  is  not  already  clear,  to  make 
something  impressive  that  they  do  not  now  feel,  to  have 
them  accept  something  they  do  not  now  accept.  To  do 
this  successfully  we  must  make  use  of  the  symbols  already 
known  to  them.  jA  captain  of  a  ship,  in  thinking  of  the 
parts  of  his  vessel,  would  think  of  them  in  nautical  terms 
— ^Tiatch,"  "bulkhead,''  "bridge,''  and  so  on,  but  in  telling 
a  story  to  children  in  which  those  parts  were  involved  he 
must  become  objective,  and  use  simple  terms  within  their 
experience;  otherwise,  he  would  fail  of  his  purpose.  The 
master  economist  thinks  in  his  technical  terms — ^"the 
margin  of  subsistence,"  "the  Malthusian  theory,"  and  so 
on;  but  in  ordinary  conversation  he  must  drop  these  and 
use  commonly  known  equivalents.  Therefore,  whenever 
we  seek  to  communicate  our  ideas  our  first  duty  is  to  cease 
being  subjective  and  become  objective.  We  must  remem- 
ber that  our  listeners  are  individuals,  with  individual 
ideas,  individual  feelings,  individual  beliefs,  and  that  our 
problem  is  to  liken  the  thing  or  things  we  seek  to  attain 
to  some  equivalent  in  their  stock  of  knowledge — refer  to 
their  experience. 

(9)  Many  Speakers  Not  Objective.  The  failure  to  be 
objective  is  very  common  among  speakers.^  Considered 
critically,  the  average  speaker  is  subjective  in  his  oresenta- 


;  REFERKNCE  TO  EXPERIENCE  33 

tion  instead  of  objective,  egoistic  instead  of  altruistic.  He 
presents  his  idea  as  it  formulates  itself  in  his  own  mind. 
He  unfolds  it  in  a  subjective  phraseology.  He  uses  argu- 
ments that  have  appealed  to  him,  regardless  of  whether 
these  arguments  will  appeal  to  the  listener,  or  whether 
their  amplification  is  of  the  kind  and  degree  suited  to  the 
particular  audience,  ^e  forgets  that  his  concern  is  not 
an  exhibition  of  his  own  processes,  but  the  making  the 
result  of  those  processes  intelligible  and  effective)  And 
while  the  steps  he,  himself,  took  may  be  the  best  method 
for  the  listener  in  some  instances,  they  utterly  fail  when 
the  listener's  environment  and  experience  do  not  include 
those  steps.  ;  A  speaker,  therefore,  instead  of  speaking  by 
blind,  subjective  impulse,  must  be  objective,  and  select 
the  symbols  most  familiar  to  his  audience.  These,  he  will 
find,  constitute  a  part  of  the  listener's  stock  of  experiences.^) 

(10)  The  Laws  Governing  Reference  to  Experience. 
If,  then,  the  coming  into  the  life  of  the  listener  is  a 
means  to  successful  speaking,  it  logically  follows  that  the 
more  closely  the  reference  touches  the  life,  the  greater 
the  effectiveness,  or,  to  state  it  formally  as  a  working 
principle : 

The  more  the  speaker  brings  his  idea  within  the  vivid 
experience  of  the  listener,  the  more  likely  will  he  attain 
his  end,  and,  obversely: 

The  less  the  speaker  brings  his  idea  within  the  vivid 
experience  of  the  listener,  the  less  likely  will  he  attain 
his  end. 

This  being  so,  the  problem  of  the  speaker  is  the  deter- 
mination of  the  relative  value  of  experiences — their  com- 
parative vividness,  and  the  principles  that  govern  this  may 
now  be  stated : 


34  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

(a)  An  experience  will  be  vivid  to  the  listener  in  the 
degree  that  it  is  originally  intense,  that  is,  in  the  degree 
the  initial  experience  engraved  itself  upon  his  memory. 
I  could  convey  the  idea  of  pain  more  vividly  by  referring 
to  a  toothache  than  to  a  finger  scratch. 

Mb)  An  experience  will  be  vivid  in  the  degree  that 
it  is  experienced  frequently.  )  You  could  describe  the 
house  that  you  had  lived  in  daily,  for  years,  better  than 
the  house  of  an  acquaintance  that  you  had  visited  but 
once.  The  conviction  that  summer  is  warmer  than  winter 
is  vivid  not  so  much  because  of  the  original  experience, 
but  because  of  its  frequency.  The  feeling  of  affection 
that  wells  up  in  us  at  the  mention  of  "home"  is  the  result 
of  not  one  but  of  a  thousand  experiences.  "Mother" 
arouses  our  love  because  of  a  pleasurable  association  that 
has  been  of  daily  occurrence  for  years.  Admiration  for 
the  stars  is  the  result  of  an  experience  of  constant  recur- 
rence.* 

/(c)  An  experience  will  be  vivid  in  the  degree  that 
iris  frequently  recollected.)  A  war  veteran  served  through 
the  campaign  but  once.  Yet  his  battles,  sieges,  fortunes, 
have  all  their  original  intensity,  through  the  frequency 
of  recollection.  Week  after  week,  year  after  year,  he 
retells  them,  and  thereby  keeps  his  mental  pictures  fresh. 
Your  holiday  trip  is  vivid  not  only  because  of  its  origi- 
nally intense  pleasure,  but  because  of  the  ten  or  twenty 

I  *This  law,  however,  is  not  without  its  exceptions,  as  when  the 
\experience  recurs  before  the  affected  area  of  the  original  ex- 
'perience  has  returned  to  the  normal,  or,  sometimes,  where  the 
original  experience  has  exhausted  all  details,  or  viewpoints,  or 
possibilities  of  emotional  association.  The  pleasurable  experience 
ftom  eating  is  lost  if  we  eat  three  meals  within  as  many  hours. 


REFEBENCE  TO  EXPERIENCE  35 

timeB  you  have  retold  it.  And  of  two  trips  equally  im- 
pressive, originally,  the  one  most  often  recounted  will 
be  the  most  vivid. 

(d)' An  experience  will  be  vivid  in  the  degree  that  it 
is  recent.  Other  things  equal,  an  experience  has  power 
according  to  its  nearness  in  time.  We  can  recall  this 
morning's  breakfast  with  greater  distinctness  than  that 
of  a  year  ago.  The  raging  headache  of  yesterday  arouses 
deeper  feeling  than  that  of  last  montli. 

(e)  Including  the  foregoing  in  one  statement,  we  have: 
An  experience  will  he  yivid  in  the  degree  that  it  is 
originally  intense,  recent,  frequent  in  recurrence  and  fre- 
quently recollected.    . 

(11)  The  Speaker  Must  Acquire  a  Stock  of  Vivid  Gen- 
eral Experiences.  The  concern  of  the  speaker,  then,  is  the 
knowledge  of  experiences  that  have  the  characteristics 
of  intensity,  recency,  frequency  of  recurrence  and  fre- 
quency of  recollection.  .  He  will  make  it  his  duty  to  im- 
press upon  his  mind,  in  a  practical  way,  all  that  stock 
of  vivid  experience,  spiritual,  intellectual,  moral,  that 
is  common  to  the  average  person>  He  will,  as  far  as 
possible,  see  with  their  eyes,  hear  with  their  ears,  feel 
with  their  minds,  work  with  their  hands,  and  store  up, 
ready  for  use,  the  knowledge  he  thus  gains.  '\He  will 
study  not  only  experience  in  common,  but  will  try  to 
familiarize  himself  with  the  experiences  that  are  vivid 
to  his  particular  audiences."^'  If  farmers,  he  will  try  to 
know  and  feel  as  the  farmer;  if  mechanics,  he  will,  in 
imagination,  become  an  artisan — in  all  instances  he  will, 
as  far  as  possible,  put  himself  in  his  listener's  place.  He 
will  remember  that  the  listener,  nowadays,  refuses  to  be 


36  ■  EFEECTIVE  SPEAKING 

ordered,  cajoled,  or  threatened  into  an  opinion;  that  he 
insists  that  he  shall  judge  for  himself;  that  he  says,  "only 
through  my  knowledge,  only  through  my  life,  shall  you 
secure  my  approval.  I  am  a  man.  I  have  individuality. 
Bring  your  thought  in  line  with  my  individual  vision, 
and  I  will  join  with  you.  My  environment,  my  training, 
my  inherited  tendencies  may  not  be  like  yours,  but  bring 
your  idea,  bring  your  argument,  bring  your  opinion,  with- 
in the  scope  of  what  I  have  seen  or  felt;  let  me  see  that 
it  is  like  my  own  sensations  and  I  am  with  you  heart  and 
soul.  I  will  believe  you  when  you  show  me  that  your 
statement  tallies  with  or  resembles  the  experience  of  my 
physical,  intellectual  or  spiritual  nature.  Till  then  you 
have  no  right  to  be  angry  with  me,  no  right  to  treat  me 
with  scorn,  no  right  to  arrogate  to  yourself  the  belief  that 
I  am  incapable  of  understanding,  or  that  you  necessarily 
have  the  truth." 

•((12)  The  Speaker  Must  Be  Sympathetic. j  The  demand, 
then,  made  upon  the  speaker  if  he  would  use  effectively 
this  principle  of  appeal  to  experience  is  that  of  universal 
sympathy.  To  best  make  known  his  opinion,  he  must  know 
humanity,  must,  in  imagination,  live  the  life  of  his 
listeners.  Then  will  he  know  what  arguments  come  clos- 
est to  their  lives,  what  appeals  come  nearest  to  their 
hearts.  And,  knowing  all  this,  living  all  lives,  he  is  able 
to  distinguish  that  which  appeals  to  all  from  that  which 
appeals  to  a  few^*  and  in  great  moments  can  touch  with 
a  deft  sureness  a  universal  chord. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

REFERENCE  TO   EXPERIENCE  AND  THE  GENERAL  END8. 

(1)  The  principle  of  Reference  to  Experience  under- 
stood in  itself,  the  next  step  to  power  in  speaking  is  a 
clear  understanding  of  the  application  of  this  principle 
to  the  General  Ends.  Taken  in  connection  with  the  great 
dictum  of  art — the  attainment  of  a  given  result  with 
the  least  effort,  the  speaker  will  not  only  select  experiences 
known  to  the  listener,  but  those  which  produce  in  him  the 
necessary  vividness  most  quickly.  The  question  the  speaker 
must  always  ask  himself  is: 

What  reference  or  references  to  listener's  experience  will 
bring  my  idea,  with  the  necessary  vividness,  most  quickly 
in  line  with  the  listener's  knowledge;  cause  him  to  say,  "I 
see/'  "I  feel"  "You  are  right,"  "I  will  do  it,  "  "I  am 
pleased,"  as  the  case  may  he. 

(2)  Reference  to  Experience  Applied  to  Clearness. 
Clearness,  as  already  defined,  means  simply  seeing.  It  ex- 
cludes all  emotion,  prejudice,  opinion,  and  asks  only  that 
the  listener  shall  understand.  The  task  of  the  speaker  is 
to  give  a  description  or  explanation  which  is  solely  an 
equivalent  or  pure  resemblance  of  the  thing  to  be  made 
clear.  But  the  mind  can  only  see  the  unseen  by  means  of 
what  it  already  sees,  and,  therefore,  these  equivalents  and 
resemblances  must  be  found  in  the  listener's  experience. 

/  -  37 

■    4?331 


38  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

To  attain  Clearness,  therefore,  the  speaker  must  refer  the 
listener  to  that  seen  thing  in  his  experience  which  is 
most  nearly  an  equivalent  or  most  nearly  resembles  the 
unseen  thing — in  brief,  show  the  unseen  by  the  seen, 
the  unknown  by  the  known.  If  I  wish  to  describe  a  house 
X  and  I  know  there  exists  in  my  listener's  mind  a  mental 
picture  of  a  house  B  which  exactly  resembles  house  X, 
then  I  can  best  make  house  X  clear  by  likening  it  to 
house  B.  If  my  listener  does  not  understand  me  when 
I  speak  of  "ondontalgia,"  I  can  best  make  it  clear  by 
searching  for  an  equivalent  in  his  experience.  Adopting 
this  method,  I  select  the  word  "toothache"  and  thus  pro- 
duce in  him  a  mental  image  that,  for  practical  purposes, 
corresponds  to  my  own.  Let  us  suppose  the  speaker 
wishes  to  make  clear  the  position  of  the  armies  at  the 
battle  of  Waterloo.  Studying  the  position  for  a  moment, 
and  then  searching  for  the  reference  to  experience  that 
will  make  it  clear,  determined,  if  possible,  to  get  that 
which  is  most  vivid,  he  finally  likens  the  field  of  battle  to 
the  capital  letter  A,  telling  his  listener  that  Wellington  is 
stationed  at  its  top,  Napoleon  at  the  bottom  of  the  right 
stroke ;  the  space  in  the  upper  triangle  the  Plateau  of  St. 
Jean,  and  the  crosspiece  the  sunken  road  from  Ohain  to 
Braine  L'Alleud,  and  so  on.  (See  Hugo's  description  of 
the  battle  of  Waterloo  in  Les  Miserables,  Cosette,  Book 
1,  Chapter  4.)  This  description  has  made  the  location  of 
the  troops  clear.  It  has  done  so  by  coming  vividly  within 
the  listener's  experience — likening  the  unknown  to  the 
known. 

(3)  Further,  it  must  be  remembered  that  of  two  ex- 
periences that  have  resemblance  or  are  equivalents,  the 


EXPERIENCE  AND  GENERAL  ENDS       39 

speaker  must  select  that  experience  which  not  only  per- 
forms this  office  of  resemblance,  but  which  also  least 
arouses  an  emotional  attitude  or  bias,  which  most  nearly  / 
disassociates  the  object  from  the  feelings,  opinions  jbt 
personality  of  the  speaker.  Thus,  from  the  point  o^/^iew 
of  Clearness  a  definition  of  Socialism  which  jaetuded  the 
term  "Utopian"  or,  on  the  other  hand,  "glorious"  would 
not  be  correct,  because  in  each  case  the  speaker's  opinion 
is  confounded  with  the  thing  itself.  An  excellent  example 
of  the  elimination  of  all  bias  and  emotion  is  found  in 
Scene  1,  Act  V,  of  Macbeth: 

"Since  his  majesty  went  into  the  field,  I  have  seen  her 
rise  from  her  bed,  throw  her  nightgown  upon  her,  unlock 
her  closet,  take  forth  a  paper,  fold  it,  write  upon't,  read 
it,  afterwards  seal  it,  and  again  return  to  bed;  yet  all 
this  while  in  a  most  fast  sleep." 

Here  the  personality,  the  feelings,  the  opinion  of  the 
speaker  are  entirely  eliminated,  and  the  doctor  has  before 
him  a  mental  image  solely  of  Lady  Macbeth's  actions. 

Recapitulating,  we  have  found  that  to  most  effectively 
attain  Clearness  we  must  refer  the  unseen  or  unknown 
tiling  to  that  seen  or  known  thing  in  the  listener's  experi- 
ence, which  will  most  quickly  set  up  an  equivalent  mental 
image  or  conception  and  which,  at  the  same  time,  least 
arouses  bias  or  emotion, 

(4)  Reference  to  Experience  Applied  to  Impressive- 
ness.  When  the  End  is  Impressiveness  the  speaker  aims 
if  have  the  listener  feel.  Here,  as  in  the  case  of  Clear- 
ness, the  problem  is  one  of  reference  to  experiences  that 
have  resemblance,  but  with  this  distinction:  in  attaining 
Clearness  the  task  was  to  discover  the  equivalent  most 


40  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

vividly  seen,  with  Impressiveneas  the  task  is  to  discover 
the  equivalent  most  vividly  felt.  Impressiveness  insists  on 
emotional  association.  Ideas  and  words  must  be  selected 
that  not  only  create  an  image,  but  an  image  which  en- 
genders feeling.  Thus,  if  the  speaker's  aim  was  solely 
to  make  clear  the  indispensable  part  the  workingman 
plays  in  civilization,  he  might  say,  "labor  makes  things 
of  use,  works  the  mines,"  and  so  on,  but  if  he  wished  to 
be  impressive,  that  is,  desired  the  listener  to  feel,  these 
statements  would  not  be  adequate,  because  they  do  not 
come  sufficiently  within  the  listener's  emotional  experi- 
ence. The  speaker  would  then  have  to  say  something 
like  this:  "Labor  mines  the  coal  with  which  you  are 
warmed,  builds  the  house  in  which  you  live,  the  church 
in  which  you  worship,  the  school  in  wliich  your  children 
are  taught.  Labor  prints  the  newspaper  you  read,  makes 
the  chair  on  which  you  sit,  the  cradle  in  which  your  baby 
smiles."  Here  the  references  engender  feeling  and  thus 
insure  Impressiveness. 

When  Cleopatra  (in  Shakespeare's  "Antony  and  Cleo^ 
patra")  seeks  to  convey  the  greatness  of  the  Antony  of 
her  dream  she  refers  her  listener  to  those  experiences 
that  have  an  emotional  association — Antony's  face  was  as 
the  heavens,  his  reared  arm  "crested  the  world,"  his 
voice  was  "propertied  as  all  the  tuned  spheres."  When 
Juliet  (in  "Romeo  and  Juliet")  would  impress  the  friar 
with  her  horror  of  the  proposed  marriage  to  Paris  she 
bursts  forth  with  ideas  that  liken  her  state  to  states  that 
not  only  make  the  friar  understand  her  sentiments  but 
feel  them: 


EXPERIENCE  AND  GENERAL  ENDS       41 

**0,  bid  me  leap,  rather  than  marry  Parii, 
From  off  the  battlements  of  yonder  tower ; 
Or  walk  in  thievish  ways ;  or  bid  me  lurk 
Where  serpents  are ;  chain  me  with  roaring  bears ; 
Or  hide  me  nightly  in  a  charnel-house, 
O'ercover'd  quite  with  dead  men's  rattling  bones. 
With  reeky  shanks,  and  yellow  chapless  skulls ; 
Or  bid  me  go  into  a  new-made  grave, 
And  hide  me  with  a  dead  man  in  his  shroud ; 
Things  that,  to  hear  them  told,  have  made  me  tremble; 
And  I  will  do  it  without  fear  or  doubt, 
To  live  an.  unstain'd  wife  to  my  sweet  love." 

To  impress  us  with  the  awfulness  of  the  famine,  Shake- 
speare is  not  content  with  informing  us  that  there  exists 
starvation,  but  refers  us  to  those  ideas  that  have  profound 
emotional  power.  He  tells  us  that  mothers  are  ready  to 
eat  their  darlings,  and  that  man  and  wife  draw  lots  to 
determine  "who  first  shall  die  to  lengthen  life."  Similarly, 
in  the  following,  the  unfelt  is  likened  to  the  felt: 

"Everytliing  in  this  picture  (the  Sistine  Madonna)  is 
food  for  admiration,  even  the  atmosphere  that  envelopes 
it  and  those  innumerable  and*endless  legions  of  cherubim 
that  gravitate  around  the  A^irgin  and  the  Word  of  God. 
The  aureole  that  encircles  the  divine  group  shows  nothing 
at  first  but  dazzling  and  golden  light;  then,  as  it  recedes 
from  the  centre,  the  light  gradually  pales  and  insensibly 
merges  from  the  most  intense  gold  into  the  purest  blue, 
and  is  filled  with  those  heads,  chaste,  innocent  and  fer- 
vent, that  spring  beneath  the  brush  of  Raphael  like  the 
flowers  at  the  breath  of  spring." — F.  A.  Gruyer. 


42  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

When,  therefore,  the  end  is  Impressiveness,  the  need  of 
the  speaker  is  to  liken  the  matter  to  be  conveyed  to  those 
ideas  of  the  listener  which  have  the  necessary  emotional 
association. 

(5)  Reference  to  Experience  Applied  to  Belief.  Belief, 
as  shown  in  Chapter  II,  is  more  than  seeing,  more  than 
feeling,  A  Socialist  may  make  his  system  perfectly  clear, 
but  we  may  not  accept  it ;  he  may  dilate  upon  it  so  as  to 
arouse  our  emotion,  but  we  still  deny  its  wisdom.  Before 
we  will  believe  in  it  we  insist  that  he  shall  show  us  that 
it  is  like  something  we  already  believe.  As  before,  the 
problem  is  the  choosing  of  experiences  that  have  resem- 
blance, but  resemblance  not  of  simple  perception,  not  of 
emotion,  but  of  actuality.  Belief,  then,  demands  refer- 
ences to  experience  that  show  the  thing  for  which  ac- 
ceptance is  sought  is  like  something  already  accepted  as 
truth — reality.  And  the  most  powerful  reference  will  be 
that  accepted  actuality  which  most  resembles  the  thing  to 
be  believed. 

(6)  We  find  the  speeches  of  Christ  abound  with  evi- 
dences of  a  recognition  of  this  law.  To  justify  his  labors 
on  the  Sabbath  day  he  says  (Luke,  chap.  13,  ver.  15)  ; 
"Doth  not  each  of  you  on  the  Sabbath  day  loose  his  ox 
or  his  ass  from  a  stall  and  lead  him  away  to  the  water- 
ing?" Here  the  thing  Christ  does  on  the  Sabbath  (which 
they  condemn)  is  shown  to  resemble  the  thing  they  them- 
selves do  on  that  day  and  which  they  believe  is  justified. 
The  unaccepted  is  shown  to  resemble  the  accepted.  Simi- 
larly with  Shakespeare.  Shylock,  to  prove  that  a  Jew 
is  entitled  to  the  same  consideration  as  a  Christian,  shows 


EXPEKIENCE  AND  GENERAL  ENDS       43 

their  common  humanity  by  likening  the  unaccepted  fact 
to  accepted  actualities: 

"Hath  not  a  Jew  eyes  ?  Hath  not  a  Jew  organs,  dimen- 
sions, senses,  affections,  passions?  fed  with  the  same  food, 
hurt  with  the  same  weapons,  subject  to  the  same  dis- 
eases, healed  by  the  same  means,  warmed  and  cooled  by 
the  same  winter  and  summer  as  a  Christian  is?  If  you 
prick  us  do  we  not  bleed?  If  j^ou  tickle  us  do  we  not 
laugh?  If  you  poison  us  do  we  not  die?  And  if  you 
wrong  us  shall  we  not  revenge?" 

lago,  to  convince  Othello  of  Desdemona's  unfaithful- 
ness, likens  the  unbelieved  tiling  to  that  accepted  thing 
most  nearly  resembling  it: 

"She  did  deceive  her  father,  marrying  you. 
And  when  she  seemed  to  shake  and  fear  your  looks 
She  loved  them  most." 

Constance,  in  King  John,  to  prove  that  she  is  sane, 
shows  the  listener  that  her  condition  resembles  the  state 
he  accepts  as  indicative  of  sanity : 

"I  am  not  mad,  this  hair  I  tear  is  mine, 
My  name  is  Constance:   I  was  Geffrey's  wife." 
And  similarly  Hamlet: 

"My  pulse,  as  yours,  doth  temperately  keep  time 
And  makes  as  healthful  music :  it  is  not  madness 
That  I  have  uttered :  bring  me  to  the  test. 
And  I  the  matter  will  re-word,  which  madness 
Would  gambol  from." 

And,  in  Henry  IV,  the  Chief  Justice  proves  to  Falstaff 


44  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

that  he  is  an  old  man  by  referring  him  to  facts  that  con- 
stitute part  of  Falstaff's  own  belief  in  respect  to  the  signs 
of  age : 

"Do  you  set  dovm  your  name  in  the  scroll  of  youth,  that 
are  written  down  old  with  all  the  characters  of  age  ?  Have 
you  not  a  moist  eye?  a  dry  hand?  a  yellow  cheek?  a 
white  beard?  a  decreasing  leg?  an  increasing  belly?  is 
not  your  voice  broken?  your  wind  short?  your  chin 
double?  your  wit  single?  and  every  part  about  you 
blasted  with  antiquity?  and  will  you  yet  call  yourself 
young  ?    Fie,  fie,  fie,  Sir  John !" 

In  all  these  instances  we  have  references  to  experience 
in  the  listener's  life  that  not  only  have  resemblance  but 
resemblance  of  actuality — the  unbelieved  thing  is  likened 
to  the  believed  thing. 

(7)  Recapitulation.  A  brief  recapitulation  and  appli- 
cation of  the  Principle  of  Eeference  to  Experience  to  the 
General  Ends  we  have  thus  far  discussed,  will  make  the 
distinction  a  little  more  vivid.  To  attain  Clearness  liken 
the  UnTcnoivn  to  the  Known.  To  attain  Impressiveness 
liken  the  Unfelt  to  the  Felt.  To  attain  Belief  liken  the 
Unaccepted  to  the  Accepted;  in  every  case  trying  to  select 
from  the  listener's  experience,  as  best  you  can,  the  seen, 
felt,  accepted  thing  that  has  the  most  vivid  resemblance. 

Clearness  will  look  for  resemblance  pure  and  sim- 
ple, with  no  bias ;  Impressiveness  will  look  for  resemblance 
of  feeling;  Belief  for  resemblance  of  actuality.  To  illus- 
trate: You  and  a  friend  have  been  conversing  with 
Mr.  B.  He  leaves  you,  and  turning  to  your  friend  you 
pronounce  Mr.  B.  a  cynic.  You  say,  "That  man  is  a 
cynic."    You  think  your  friend  does  not  understand  you. 


EXPERIENCE  AND  GENERAL  ENDS       45 

So  you  continue  (your  End  being  Clearness) :  "He  sees 
goodness  nowhere."  You  have  made  yourself  plain.  You 
have  selected  an  idea  (experience)  of  the  listener's  that 
has  resemblance  to  the  thing  not  understood  and  one 
which  avoids  bias. 

If  on  making  your  original  statement  you  had 
realized  that  he  understood  you,  but  you  desired  him  to 
feel  the  force  of  the  fact  (your  End  then  being  Impress- 
iveness),  you  might  say,  if  true,  "He  sneers  at  \-irtue,  sneers 
at  love;  to  him  the  maiden  plighting  her  troth  is  an  artful 
schemer,  and  he  sees  even  in  the  mother's  kiss  nothing  but 
an  empty  conventionality."  Here  you  have  Likened  the 
cynic  to  ideas  of  the  listener  that  have  emotional  associa- 
tion, the  unfelt  thing  "cynic"  to  the  felt  things  which  he 
feels  are  equivalent  or  resemblances 

If  your  End  is  Belief — that  is,  you  felt  there  was  doubt 
in  your  friend's  mind  as  to  whether  Mr  B.  was  a  cynic — 
you  might  say,  referring  to  the  conversation  with  Mr,  B 
just  previously,  "When  you  said  that  Mr.  Bard  went  reg- 
ularly to  church,  did  Mr.  B.  not  reply,  *Yes,  the  elections 
are  near';  when  you  said  that  Mrs.  Horton  was  very 
attentive  to  her  husband,  did  he  not  reply,  *Yes,  the  bet- 
ter to  deceive  him';  and  when  you  said  Mr.  Askin  was 
an  honest  man,  did  he  not  answer,  'Yes,  because  he's 
watched'?"  Here  you  have  referred  your  friend  to  a  con- 
versation which  he  himself  actually  held  with  Mr.  B 
You  have  likened  the  thing  to  be  believed  to  certain  parts 
of  this  conversation  —  certain  experiences  —  actualities  — 
that  are  equivalents  or  resemblances,  and  vivid  ones,  to 
the  essential  characteristics  of  a  cynic.  You  have  likened 
the  Unaccepted  to  the  Accepted. 


46  EFFECTIYE  SPEAKING 

For  comparison,  the  three  different  uses  of  the  same 
principle  of  Eeference  to  Experience  are  presented  to- 
gether : 

Statement :  That  man  is  a  cynic. 

When  Clearness  Is  the  End. 
"He  sees  goodness  nowhere." 

When  Impressiveness  Is  the  End. 

"He  sneers  at  virtue,  sneers  at  love;  to  him  the  maiden 
plighting  her  troth  is  an  artful  schemer,  and  he  sees 
even  in  the  mother's  kiss  nothing  but  an  empty  conven- 
tionahty."  '•''  ^ 

When  Belief  Is  the  End. 

"When  you  said  that  Mr.  Bard  went  regularly  to  church, 
did  Mr.  B.  not  reply,  'Yes,  the  elections  are  near';  when 
you  said  that  Mrs.  Horton  was  very  attentive  to  her  hus- 
band, did  Mr.  B.  not  reply,  *Yes,  the  better  to  deceive 
him';  and  when  you  said  Mr.  Askin  was  an  honest  man, 
did  he  not  answer,  'Yes,  because  he's  watched'  ?" 

(8)  If  the  average  speaker  would  go  over  his  utter- 
ances he  would  find  frequent  evidence  of  his  failure  to 
observe  the  laws  here  set  forth.  Sometimes  the  fault  is 
the  use  of  material  that  does  not  come  into  the  listener's 
experience;  again  it  is  a  misplaced  resemblance — resem- 
blance of  Clearness  when  there  should  have  been  resem- 
blance of  Impressiveness,  resemblance  of  Impressiveness 
when  there  should  have  been  resemblance  of  Belief,  and 
so  on.  In  the  periodicals  we  see  advertisers  waste  thou- 
sands of  dollars  through  errors  of  this  kind,  and  men  in 


EXPERIENCE  AND  GENERAL  ENDS 


47 


every  walk  of  life  have  failed  of  their  purpose,  because  of 
their  use  of  material  not  suited  to  the  particular  End. 
The  principles  here  outlined,  if  properly  understood  and 
applied,  help  the  speaker  and  writer  to  avoid  these  costly 
errors. 


<~ — ^5^- — *^ 


CHAPTEE  V. 

ACTION  AND  THE  IMPELLING  MOTIVES. 

(1)  Action  means  doing.  We  do  things  because  of 
desire.  Therefore,  to  use  effectively  the  principle  of  Ref- 
erence to  Experience  for  the  attainment  of  Action,  we 
must  consider  it  in  relation  to  those  things  which  man- 
kind desires,  that  is,  in  relation  to  what  we  may  term  the 
Impelling  Motives.  Impelling  Motives  may  be  defined  as 
man's  spiritual,  intellectual,  moral  and  material  wants. 
For  working  purposes  they  may  be  given  the  following 
classification:  Self -Preservation,  Property,  Power,  Repu- 
tation, Affections,  Sentiments,  Tastes. 

(2)  Self-Preservation.  Self -Preservation,  as  here  used, 
means  the  desire  for  the  preservation  of  life  and  health, 
the  desire  for  freedom  from  disease,  fire  and  flood,  free- 
dom from  personal  injury  or  pain.  It  means  the  desire 
for  freedom  from  those  things  not  only  while  on  earth 
but  in  the  hereafter — heaven  as  opposed  to  hell.  There- 
fore, anything  that  aims  to  convince  the  listener  that  a 
certain*  course  will  free  him  from  suffering,  or  will  give 
health  and  prolong  life,  is  an  appeal  to  the  Impelling 
Motive  of  Self-Preservation. 

(3)  The  power  of  this  Motive  is  self-evident.  It  is  the 
paramount  factor  in  the  great  majoiJty  of  our  actions.    It 

48 


ACTION  AND  IMPELLING  MOTIVES  49 

largely  determines  what  we  shall  eat  and  drink.  From 
this  motive  come  our  armies  and  navies,  and  our  town 
police.  It  makes  us  inspect  bridges  and  steamboats  and 
elevators.  It  impels  us  to  cage  wild  animals.  We  tell  a 
man  not  to  call  at  a  certain  house ;  he  takes  no  heed.  We 
then  tell  him  that  it  is  inhabited  by  smallpox  patients, 
and  he  readily  obeys  ue.  A  patent  medicine  has  but  little 
m\e.  The  owner  seeks  a  master  advertiser.  He  appeals 
to  the  desire  for  Self-Preservation .  He  tells  the  public 
that  iced  drinks  are  dangerous  unless  they  contain  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  Blank  Remedy,  that  this  Remedy  has  been 
prescribed  by  doctors  of  every  school  as  an  "effectual  pre- 
ventive and  cure  of  consumption,  bronchitis,  indigestion." 
That  it  "builds  up  tlie  nerve  tissues,  tones  up  the  heart, 
gives  power  to  the  brain,  strength  and  elasticity  to  the 
muscles  and  richness  to  the  blood,  brings  into  action  all 
the  vital  forces."    The  sales  are  enormous! 

How  to  be  well,  how  to  live  long,  how  to  avoid  pain 
and  accident,  are  ends  constantly  sought  by  every  normal 
human  being,  and  to  convince  a  listener  that  the  thing 
you  wish  him  to  do  will  favorably  affect  any  of  these 
aims,  that  it  will  drive  away  worry  or  bring  content,  that 
it  will  dispel  fear  or  create  pleasurable  anticipation,  that 
it  will  banish  illness  or  produce  health,  that  it  will  pre- 
vent mishap  and  ensure  safety — convince  him  that  your 
proposed  course  will  attain  for  him  any  of  these  things — 
and,  other  things  equal,  he  is  willing  to  adopt  it. 

(4)  Property,  Property  as  an  Impelling  Motive  means 
the  desire  for  goods,  lands  and  money — wealth.  Goods 
includes  building  and  their  contents,  machines,  tools,  fur- 
niture, food,  clothing — articles  of  all  kinds,  whether  for 


50  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

necessary  use  or  for  pleasure.  In  the  term  "lands"  are 
included  ciiy  and  country  acreage,  woods,  forests,  mines 
— land  itself.  Money  means  coin  and  currency  and  in- 
volves wages,  interest,  profits — income.  The  desire  for 
any  of  these  things  is  called  the  Impelling  Motive  of 
Property.  In  the  following  example  Bianca  is  wooed 
(indirectly)  by  use  of  this  Motive : 

"First,  as  you  know,  my  house  within  the  city 
Is  richly  furnished  with  plate  and  gold ; 
Basins  and  ewers  to  lave  her  dainty  hands; 
My  hangings  all  of  Tyrian  tapestry; 
In  ivory  coffers  I  have  stuff'd  my  crowns; 
In  cypress  chests  my  arras,  counterpoints. 
Costly  apparel,  tents,  and  canopies. 
Fine  linen,  Turkey  cushions  boss'd  with  pearl. 
Valance  of  Venice  gold  in  needlework. 
Pewter  and  brass,  and  all  things  that  belong 
To  house  or  housekeeping;  then,  at  my  farm 
I  have  a  hundred  milch-kine  to  the  pail, 
Sixscore  fat  oxen  standing  in  my  stalls. 
And  all  things  answerable  to  this  portion. 
Myself  am  struck  in  years,  I  must  confess; 
And  if  I  die  tomorrow,  this  is  hers, 
If  whilst  I  live  she  will  be  only  mine." 

— Shakespeare,  Taming  of  the  Shrew. 

(5)  The  desire  for  Property  is  found  in  everyone.  It 
is  one  of  the  greatest  incentives  to  Action.  The  child 
wants  to  own  the  toy,  the  maiden  wants  to  possess  the 
handsome  gown,  the  wife  the  beautiful  home,  the  mar- 


ACTION  AND  IMPELLING  MOTIVES  51 

chant  the  magnificent  store;  the  employee  wants  more 
salary,  the  capitalist  a  greater  return  for  his  investment. 
It  is  this  Motive  that  impels  the  young  man  to  attend 
strictly  to  his  clerical  duties,  to  go  down  early  to  the 
office  and  work  late;  it  impels  the  merchant  to  be  con- 
siderate of  his  customers,  and  the  financial  magnate  to 
plan  and  scheme.  It  is  this  desire  that  sends  the  farmer 
to  his  wheat  field  at  four  in  the  morning,  and  the  miner 
into  the  dangerous  coal  pit.  It  is  the  Motive  that  is  at 
the  very  foundation  of  our  vast  commercial  and  industrial 
structure.  Therefore,  show  clearly  that  a  certain  course 
will  add  to  the  listener's  goods  or  lands,  or  that  it  will 
increase  his  wages,  or  make  for  him  greater  profits,  or 
that  such  course  is  the  only  way  to  preserve  these  things, 
and,  other  things  equal.  Action  ensues. 

(6)  Power.  Power  as  a  Motive  means  the  desire  to  pos- 
sess skill,  force,  energy,  along  every  line  of  endeavor,  the 
ability  to  be  and  to  do.  It  includes  the  desire  to  possess 
intellectual,  moral  and  physical  strength,  the  desire  for 
authority  and  influence — the  ability  to  sway  and  control 
men.  Under  this  Motive  come  nearly  all  ambitions — 
the  desire  for  political  power,  social  leadership,  commer- 
cial supremacy. 

(7)  Tlie  actional  force  of  this  motive  varies  in  differ- 
ent people.  It  is  always  present  in  some  degree.  Some 
men  will  do  anything  that  they  believe  will  increase  their 
intellectual  powers;  others  will  be  swayed  by  those  things 
that  increase  their  physical  force — give  them  increased 
endurance  and  energy.  Decius  would  move  Caesar  to 
action  by  appeal  to  the  motive  of  political  power: 


58  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

"...    the  senate  have  concluded 
To  give  this  day  a  crown  to  mighty  Caesar. 
If  you  shall  send  them  word  you  will  not  come, 
Their  minds  may  change/' 

— Shakespeare,  Julius  Caesar,  ii.,  2. 

And  Brutus,  in  the  same  play,  tells  his  listeners  they 
shall  have  "a  place  in  the  commonwealth." 

When  the  action  sought  is  honorable  (and  sometimes 
even  when  dishonorable),  we  know  that  the  soldier  will 
do  that  which  will  increase  his  power  in  the  army,  the 
politician  will  do  that  which  will  increase  his  power  in 
politics,  the  preacher  will  do  that  which  will  increase  his 
power  with  his  congregation.  Other  things  equal,  all  peo- 
ple in  their  various  fields  stand  ready  to  do  the  thing 
you  propose,  providing  they  believe  it  will  increase  their 
Power. 

(8)  Reputation.  Eeputation  as  an  Impelling  Motive 
means  the  desire  for  the  good  opinion  and  good  will  of 
others.  It  is  born  of  self-respect  and  pride.  All  normal 
persons  seek  the  esteem  and  regard  of  mankind.  They 
find  pleasure  in  being  known  as  honest,  upright,  kind, 
generous,  noble,  intelligent,  scholarly,  and  the  like,  and 
they  find  pain  in  being  known  as  dishonest,  unfair,  stingy, 
ignoble,  dull,  ignorant.  They  love  to  feel  that  eyes  turn 
kindly  and  admiringly  toward  them,  that  tongues  speak 
their  praise. 

(9)  The  impelling  power  of  this  Motive  of  Reputation 
is  great.  There  are  men  and  women  who  would  sacrifice 
life  rather  than  lose  a  good  reputation.  The  desire  to 
be  known  and  spoken  of  favorably  makes  the  indolent 


ACTION  AND  IMPELLING  MOTIVES  53 

industrious,  forces  the  man  with  avaricious  tendenciea  to 
become  generous,  and  causes  the  man  who  would  other- 
wise defraud  to  act  honestly.  It  impels  people  to  adopt 
the  fashion  of  the  day  and  the  fad  of  the  moment.  This 
approval  of  the  world  is  desired  even  in  the  hour  of 
death.  In  his  dying  speech  Hamlet  is  concerned  for  his 
reputation :  ".  .  .  report  me  and  ray  cause  aright  to  the 
imsatisfied";  and  Brutus,  just  before  he  runs  upon  his 
Bword,  says,  "I  shall  have  glory  by  this  losing  day";  and 
Othello,  in  his  last  moments,  "Speak  of  me  as  I  am, 
nothing  extenuate,  nor  set  down  aught  in  malice."  Eepu- 
tation  is  a  part  of  Volumnia's  successful  appeal  to  her 
eon,  Coriolanus: 

"Thou  know'st,  great  son 
The  end  of  war's  uncertain,  but  this  certain. 
That  if  thou  conquer  Eome,  the  benefit 
Which  thou  shalt  thereby  reap  is  such  a  nam© 
Whose  repetition  will  be  dogg'd  with  curses ; 
Whose  chronicle  thus  writ :   *The  man  was  noble. 
But  with  his  last  attempt  he  wiped  it  out, 
Destroy'd  his  country,  and  his  name  remains 
To  the  ensuing  age  abhorr'd.' " 

— Shakespeare,  Coriolanus,  v.,  3. 

Other  things  equal,  convince  the  average  person  that  a 
given  action  will  heighten  his  good  reputation,  will  give 
him  a  greater  name  for  honesty,  generosity,  power,  abil- 
ity; or,  obversely,  convince  him  that  the  proposed  course 
will  prevent  a  bad  name,  and  the  desired  thing  is  done. 
(10>  Affections.    Affections,   as  an   Impelling  Motive, 


54  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

means  the  desire  for  the  welfare  of  others — kindly  con- 
cern for  the  interests  of  mother,  father,  wife,  son,  daugh- 
ter, sweetheart,  friends,  any  being,  human  or  divine.  Also 
it  includes  desire  for  the  welfare  of  our  town,  county, 
state  and  nation,  in  so  far  as  this  desire  is  altruistic  and 
not  selfish. 

(11)  The  power  of  this  Motive  is  greatest  when  the 
thing  desired  to  be  done  is  shown  to  favorably  concern 
the  person  or  thing  dearest  to  the  listener.  Hamlet  is 
urged  to  revenge  the  murder  of  his  father  by  means  of 
this  motive:  "If  ever  thou  did'st  thy  dear  father  love"; 
and  Henry  V,  by  its  use  (Henry  V.,  act  iii.,  scene  3)  in- 
duces the  citizens  of  Harfleur  to  open  its  gates.  Prove 
to  the  listener  that  what  you  wish  him  to  do  will  increase 
the  happiness  of  the  child  he  dotes  on,  of  the  woman  he 
loves,  of  the  mother  he  adores,  or  of  the  country  he 
reveres;  or,  obversely,  that  it  will  prevent  impending 
harm  to  these,  and,  other  things  equal,  he  will  carry  out 
your  proposed  action. 

(12)  Sentiments.  The  Impelling  Motive  of  Sentiments 
includes  the  desire  to  be  and  to  do  what  is  right,  fair,  hon- 
orable, noble,  true — desires  associated  with  intellectual 
and  moral  culture.  It  embraces  duty,  liberty,  independ- 
ence and  also  patriotism  considered  as  a  moral  obligation. 

(13)  The  actional  power  of  these  Sentiments  varies 
considerably  with  different  individuals.  In  great  hours  an 
entire  population  will  place  their  liberty  above  their  lives, 
as  in  the  war  of  the  American  Eevolution  and  in  the  strug- 
gle in  the  Transvaal.  Almost  every  one  is  susceptible  to 
an  appeal  to  his  sense  of  fairness.  It  is  the  use  of  this 
Motive  that  wins  approval  for  the  Chief  Justice  in 
Henry  IV. : 


ACTION  AND  IMPELLING  MOTIVES  55 

"Question  your  royal  thoughts,  make  the  case  yours ; 

Be  now  the  father,  and  propose  a  son : 

Hear  your  own  dignity  so  much  profan'd, 

See  your  most  dreadful  laws  so  loosely  slighted, 

Behold  yourself  so  by  a  son  disdain'd: 

And  then  imagine  me  taking  your  part. 

And,  in  your  power,  soft  silencing  your  son: 

After  this  cold  considerance,  sentence  me; 

And,  as  you  are  a  king,  speak  in  your  state, 

What  I  have  done  that  misbecame  my  place, 

My  person,  or  my  liege's  sovereignty." 

— Shakespeare,  Henry  IV,  Pt.  II,  v.,  2. 

Convince  a  listener  that  the  thing  you  wish  him  to  do  is 
honest,  or  that  it  is  just  or  generous,  or  noble,  or  cour- 
ageous, that  it  is  keeping  with  the  highest  ideal  of  man- 
hood, and,  other  things  equal,  he  takes  the  desired  step. 

(14)  Tastes.  Tastes,  as  an  Impelling  Motive,  means 
the  aesthetic  desires,  the  finer  pleasures  of  touch,  taste, 
smell,  hearing,  sight — the  love  of  music,  painting,  sculp- 
ture, oratory,  poetry,  drama,  the  love  of  the  beautiful  and 
the  sublime  in  the  works  of  man  and  nature.  Also,  as 
here  used.  Tastes  includes  the  appetites  in  so  far  as  they 
have  an  aesthetic  side  and  are  not  looked  at  from  the 
point  of  view  of  Self-Preservation. 

(15)  Like  the  other  Motives,  the  power  of  the  appeal 
to  Tastes  varies  according  to  the  person.  As  a  general 
rule,  the  higher  the  scale  of  intelligence,  the  greater  its 
power.  Make  clear  to  a  man  of  culture  that  the  proposed 
action  will  enable  him  to  hear  music  of  the  highest  worth, 
to  see  paintings  of  extraordinary  merit,  to  witness  a  splen- 


56  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

did  performance  of  a  great  drama,  to  enjoy  a  superb  view 
of  natural  scenery,  and,  other  things  equal,  he  does  the 
desired  thing. 

(16)  Recapitulation.  The  distinction  between  these 
Impelling  Motives  and  the  manner  of  their  application 
can  be  seen  best,  perhaps,  by  an  example.  Let  us  sup- 
pose the  purpose  is  to  have  a  listener  lead  a  temperate  life. 
The  argument,  in  outline,  might  consist  of  the  entire 
Seven  Impelling  Motives,  after  the  manner  following; 

(a)  You  should  be  temperate  in  all  things — 
Because — you  will  be  better  off. 

Self-Preservation.  You  will  have  better  health  and  a 
longer  life. 

Property.  You  will  earn  more  and  save  more. 

Power.  You  will  have  greater  mental  force,  greater 
moral  power,  greater  self-control.  You  will  do  more 
yourself  and  exert  greater  power  over  others. 

Reputation.  Your  friends  and  acquaintances  will  ad- 
mire you,  hold  you  in  higher  esteem. 

Affections.  You  will  avoid  wounding  the  feehngs  of 
those  you  love ;  your  companionship  will  give  them  greater 
pleasure.    You  will  be  able  to  be  of  more  use  to  them. 

Sentiments.  You  will  prove  yourself  a  man.  You  will 
show  self-respect.    It  is  right  to  be  temperate. 

Tastes.  You  will  increase  both  your  opportunity  and 
your  ability  to  appreciate  the  best  in  art,  literature, 
drama. 

Or,  again: 

(b)  You  should  join  our  Fraternal  Society — 
Because — vou  will  be  benefited. 


ACTION  AND  IMPELLING  MOTIVES  5? 

Self-Preservation.  It  will  prevent  worry,  and  prevent- 
ing worry  preserves  health. 

Property.  It  will  lead  to  acquaintanceships  that  will 
result  in  increase  of  your  business. 

Power.  It  will  increase  your  opportunity  to  make 
friends,  and  will  likely  lead  to  an  office  in  the  society 
or  to  political  power. 

Reputation,  You  will  be  known  as  a  member  of  a  high- 
cIasb  organization. 

Affections.  The  infiurance  feature  will  protect  your  wife 
and  family. 

Sentiments.  You  will  perform  one  of  your  duties  as  a 
social  being — the  promotion  of  good  fellowship. 

Tastes.  You  will  meet  men  of  wit  and  refinement  and 
education,  and  often  be  regaled  with  high-class  entertain- 
ments. 

Sometimes  the  Motives  can  be  effectively  used  by  con- 
trasting the  favorable  results  from  following  the  course 
proposed  with  the  unfavorable  consequences  incident  to 
not  following  it.    Thus: 

(c)  You  should  pay  your  bills. 

Because — it  is  to  your  beat  interests. 

Self-Preservation.  You  will  enjoy  better  health.  You 
will  not  suffer  from  the  worry  and  annoyance  of  debt. 

Property.  Your  purchases  cost  you  less.  You  do  not 
have  to  pay  interest  nor  added  price  due  to  the  fact  that 
you  are  'Haad  pay." 

Power.  Your  word  has  weight.  You  therefore  increase 
your  influence.  You  will  not  be  ignored  in  some  business 
transaction  of  importance. 

Reputation.    You  are  looked  upon  as  a  worthy  citiacn. 


58  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

No  man  points  the  finger  of  scorn  at  you  and  says,  "He 
never  keeps  his  word  or  meets  his  obligations." 

Affections.  You  reflect  credit  on  your  family  and 
friends.  Your  mother  and  sister  are  not  ashamed  to  be 
Been  with  you. 

Sentiments.  You  do  the  honorable  and  square  thing. 
You  do  not  have  to  hang  your  head  or  reflect  that  you 
are  not  honest. 

Tastes.  Your  profits  by  discounts  and  better  prices 
mean  spare  cash  to  gratify  higher  tastes. 

It  is  not  intended  that  the  foregoing  examples  show 
precisely  the  course  to  be  pursued  to  attain  the  ends 
mentioned.  In  an  actual  case  it  might  be  wise  to  use  but 
one  of  the  Motives  or,  at  least,  not  more  than  three  or 
four.  The  examples  simply  illustrate  in  skeleton  form 
the  distinction  between  the  Motives  and,  in  a  general  way, 
the  manner  of  their  use. 

(17)  In  the  following  address  of  Richmond  to  his 
soldiers,  if  we  may  construe  the  words  "the  gain  of  my 
attempt  the  least  of  you  shall  share  his  part  thereof," 
as  implying  opportunity  to  gratify  Tastes  and  Power,  the 
entire  Seven  Motives  are  used: 

"God  and  our  good  cause  fight  upon  our  side ; 
The  prayers  of  holy  saints  and  wronged  souls, 
Like  high-reared  bulwarks,  stand  before  our  faces. 
Richard  except,  those  whom  we  fight  against 
Had  rather  have  us  win  than  him  they  follow : 
For  what  is  he  they  follow?  truly,  gentlemen, 
A  bloody  tyrant  and  a  homicide ; 
One  raised  in  blood,  and  one  in  blood  estabhsh'd; 


ACTION  AND  IMPELLING  MOTIVES  69 

One  that  made  means  to  come  by  what  he  hath. 
And  slaughter'd  those  that  were  the  means  to 

help  him; 
A  base  foul  stone,  made  precious  by  the  foil 
Of  England's  chair,  where  he  is  falsely  set; 
One  that  hath  ever  been  God's  enemy : 
Then,  if  you  fight  against  God's  enemy, 
God  will  in  justice  ward  you  as  his  soldiers; 
If  you  do  sweat  to  put  a  tyrant  down. 
You  sleep  in  peace,  the  tyrant  being  slain; 
If  you  do  fight  against  your  country's  foes, 
Your  country's  fat  shall  pay  your  pains  the  hire; 
If  you  do  fight  in  safeguard  of  your  wives. 
Your  wives  shall  welcome  home  the  conquerors; 
If  you  do  free  your  children  from  the  sword. 
Your  children's  children  quit  it  in  your  age. 
Then,  in  the  name  of  God  and  all  these  rights. 
Advance  your  standard,  draw  your  willing  swords. 
For  me,  the  ransom  of  my  bold  attempt 
Shall  be  this  cold  corpse  on  the  earth's  cold  face ; 
But  if  I  thrive,  the  gain  of  my  attempt 
The  least  of  you  shall  share  his  part  thereof. 
Sound  drums  and  trumpets  boldly  and  cheerfully ; 
God  and  St.  George !     Richmond  and  victory." 

— Shakespeare,  Richard  III,  v,  3. 

(18)  The  Relative  Value  of  the  Impelling  Motives. 
The  relative  value  of  the  Impelling  Motives  must 
be  left  largely  to  the  speaker's  judgment.  While,  with 
rare  exceptions,  the  desire  to  live — Self-Preservation — 
(here  and  hereafter)  is  undoubtedly  the  strongest  of  the 


go  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

Motives,  different  people  value  the  others  differently,  and, 
therefore,  each  listener  or  group  of  listeners  must  be 
judged  independently.  Approximately  it  may  be  stated 
that  their  importance  is  in  the  order  originally  given. 
After  Self-Preservation  comes  Property,  then  Power. 
Reputation  is  of  great  importance,  and  with  many  ranks 
second,  sometimes  even  first.  Again,  the  Affections — 
desires  in  regard  to  family  relations,  friends — may  some- 
times rank  first.  Some  of  the  Sentiments  take  a  high 
place,  such  as  love  of  liberty,  wliile  others  are  compara- 
tively unimportant.  Tastes,  as  a  rule,  rank  last  No 
valuation  fits  all  cases,  and  the  one  given  is  only  approxi- 
mate. The  great  essential  is  to  judge  as  accurately  as 
possible  the  particular  audience  and  select  the  Motives 
that  most  appeal  to  them. 

(19)  Impelling  Motives  Governed  by  Reference  to  Ex- 
perience.  The  Impelling  Motives  determined,  their  power 
to  secure  Action  will  be  increased  in  the  degree  that 
they  are  brought  vividly  into  listener's  experience. 
The  action  sought  must  be  shown  to  resemble  that 
action  which  comes  into  the  listener's  life  as  affecting 
him  or  others  favorably.  Thus,  if  the  action  sought 
is  honesty  in  business,  and  the  Impelling  Motive 
selected  is  that  of  Property— "Honesty  means  greater 
profits  in  the  end" — the  speaker  will  select  that  support 
that  brings  this  assertion  most  into  the  listener's  life. 
If  the  speaker  knows  that  certain  honest  actions  of  the 
listener  have  resulted  favorably  he  will  refer  to  these. 
If  this  is  not  practicable  and  if  A.,  B.  and  C.  are  mer- 
chants who  have  succeeded  by  honest  methods,  and  B.  is 
known,  while  A.  and  C.  ai-e  not,  the  speaker  will  select  B., 


ACTION  AND  IMPELLING  MOTIVES  fll 

because  the  case  of  B.  comes  vividly  into  the  listener'B 
experience.  Similarly,  if  the  Impelling  Motive  was  Power 
— 'Tlonesty  means  greater  influence" — or  Sentiments — 
"Honesty  is  the  manly  course" — in  these  cases  also,  the 
Impelling  Motive  will  be  made  more  actional  in  the  degree 
that  the  support  comes  vividly  into  the  listener's  life. 
Patrick  Henry,  in  his  celebrated  appeal  to  the  House  of 
Burgesses,  used  references  to  experience  that  caused  the 
desired  action  to  appeal  to  them  as  essential  to  the 
preservation  of  their  liberty   (Sentiments) : 

"Sir,  we  have  done  everj-thing  that  could  be  done  to 
avert  the  storm  which  is  now  coming  on.  We  have  peti- 
tioned, we  have  remonstrated,  we  have  supplicated,  we 
have  prostrated  ourselves  before  the  throne,  and  have  im- 
plored its  interposition  to  arrest  the  tyrannical  hands  of 
the  Ministry  and  Parliament.  Our  petitions  have  been 
slighted,  our  remonstrances  have  produced  additional  vio- 
lence and  insult,  our  supplications  have  been  disregarded, 
and  we  have  been  spurned  with  contempt  from  the  foot  ol 
the  throne.  In  vain,  after  these  things,  may  we  indulgt 
the  fond  hope  of  peace  and  reconciliation.  There  is  no 
longer  any  room  for  hope.  If  we  wish  to  be  free,  if  we 
mean  to  preserve  inviolate  those  inestimable  privileges 
for  which  we  have  been  so  long  contending — if  we  mean 
not  basely  to  abandon  the  noble  struggle  in  which  we  have 
been  so  long  engaged,  and  which  we  have  pledged  our- 
selves never  to  abandon,  until  the  glorious  object  of  our 
contest  shall  be  obtained — we  must  fight !  I  repeat  it,  sir, 
we  must  fight!  An  appeal  to  arras  and  to  the  God  of 
Hosts  fs  all  that  is  left  us." — Patrick  Henry. 

The  concern,  then,  of  all  speakers  when  their  End  is 


ez  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

Action,  is,  firstj_the_^eterminati(m  of  jthe  Impelling 
Matives  that  most  fit  the  case,  that  is,  that  most  appeal  to 
the  particular  audience,  and,  second,  the  support  of  these 
Motives,  hy-matenal  that  brings  them  most  vividly  into 
ttie-£xpeiience  of  the  listener,  that  most  leads  them  to  feel 
that  the  favorable  effect  of  the  proposed  action  is  proven 
out  of  their  own  lives. 

(20)  It  will  be  seen  that  the  development  of  skill  in 
the  attainment  of  Action  is  of  great  importance.  Every 
day  throughout  our  lives,  in  the  home  or  social  circle,  in 
our  business  or  profession,  we  are  seeking  Action.  In 
business  we  want  this  man  to  buy  our  goods,  that  one  to 
make  an  agreement,  this  one  to  adopt  our  policy;  in  the 
home  we  wish  this  course  of  conduct  followed,  that  aban- 
doned; in  social  and  public  circles  we  want  people  to 
interest  themselves  in  charitable,  educational,  religious 
or  reform  movements,  and  so  on;  ever}^  day  in  some  phase 
of  our  lives  we  wish  to  persuade.  If,  then,  we  are  seeking 
Action  so  frequently,  and,  if,  further.  Actionals  the  result 
of  the  superiority  of  thj_.  In^)elling_Motives  over  the  re- 
straining motives  (as  Psychology  teaches),  it  is  plain  that 
the  more  we  bring  these  Impelling  Motives  to  bear  upon 
a  given  audience  or  person,  the  more  likely  will  we  attain 
our  End.  Therefore,  it  is  of  the  greatest  importance  that 
we  master  their  ready  use. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

ENTERTAINMENT  AND  THE   FACTORS   OF   INTERESTINGNES8, 

(1)  Entertainment  as  a  General  End  of  speech  means 
pure  pleasure — pleasure  for  its  own  sake — amusement. 
The  aim  of  the  speaker  is  to  produce  agreeable  sensations 
without  regard  to  any  ethical  or  spiritual  purpose,  to 
make  the  listener  forget  his  cares  and  worries,  and  cause 
him  to  say  inwardly,  "I  have  enjoyed  myself."  The 
speaker  that  does  this  is  commonly  styled  "interesting," 
and,  if  we  eliminate  those  instances  where  the  listener 
believes  himself  concerned  harmfully,  we  may  say  that 
Entertainment  is  a  matter  of  Interestingness. 

(2)  Factors  of  Interestingness.  While  a  classification  of 
the  Factors  of  Interestingness  cannot  be  absolute,  yet 
they  can  be  stated  with  accuracy  sufficient  for  practical 
purposes.  Those  things  are  interesting  which  are  Vital, 
Unusual,  Uncertain,  Similar,  Antagonistic,  Animate, 
Concrete. 

(3)  The  Vital.  The  Vital  is  that  which  concerns  the 
listener's  self-preservation,  power,  property,  affections, 
reputation.  (The  nature  and  place  of  these  we  have  dis- 
cussed under  the  Impelling  Motives.)  Naturally  we  are 
interested  in  self.  We  listen  with  eagerness  to  the  talk 
about  our  health,  about  our  business  interests,  about  what 
people  say  and  think  of  us.    The  young  men  of  the  land 

63 


64  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

give  a  circulation  of  hundreds  of  thousands  to  the  maga- 
zine that  tells  them  how  to  improve  their  chances  of 
success,  and  American  mothers  demand  a  million  copies 
a  month  of  the  journal  that  tells  them  how  best  to  take 
care  of  themselves,  their  children,  and  their  homes.  It 
is  by  the  use  of  the  Vital  (through  Property  and  Power) 
that  Portia  interests  Bassanio  when  she  tells  him  "myself 
and  what  is  mine  to  you  and  yours  is  now  converted" 
An  excellent  example  of  the  use  of  this  Factor  (through 
Reputation)  is  the  following: 

"What  you  do 
Still  betters  what  is  done.    When  you  speak,  sweet, 
I'd  have  you  do  it  ever :  when  you  sing, 
I'd  have  you  buy  and  sell  so,  so  give  alms. 
Pray  so;  and,  for  the  ordering  of  your  affairs. 
To  sing  them  too:  when  you  do  dance,  I  wish  you 
A  wave  o'  the  sea,  that  you  might  ever  do 
Nothing  but  that;  move  still,  still  so. 
And  own  no  other  function :   each  your  doing. 
So  singular  in  each  particular. 
Crowns  what  you  are  doing  in  the  present  deeds, 
That  all  your  acts  are  queens." 

— Shakespeare,  Winter's  Tale,  iv,  3. 

(4)  The  Unusiuil.  The  Unusual  means  the  new,  the 
strange,  the  rare,  the  unfamiliar,  the  unique.  The  listener 
is  fascinated  by  tales  of  new  lands,  new  peoples,  strange 
customs,  odd  happenings,  marvelous  feats,  wonderful  dis- 
coveries, the  greatest,  the  biggest,  the  best,  the  unparal- 
leled, the  unprecedented.     "Whafs  new?"  is  our  daily 


ENTERTAINMENT  AND  INTERESTINGNESS  65 

query,  and  he  who  can  answer  it  will  most  get  oui*  ear. 
Also  under  this  general  head  come  the  creations  of  the 
fancy  and  imagination,  such  as  fairies,  ghosts,  hobgoblins, 
witches,  pygmies — nature  awry.  In  the  following  we 
have  an  example  of  the  Unusual  through  the  ridiculous : 
"They  conveyed  me  into  a  buck-basket,  .  .  .  rammed 
me  in  with  foul  shirts  and  smocks,  socks,  foul  stockings, 
and  greasy  napkins;  that,  master  Brook,  there  was  the 
rankest  compound  of  villainous  smell  that  ever  offended 
nostril.  .  .  .  Being  thus  crammed  in  the  basket,  a 
couple  of  Ford's  knaves,  his  hinds,  were  called  forth  by 
their  mistress,  to  carry  me  in  the  name  of  foul  clothes  to 
Datchet-lane :  they  took  me  on  their  shoulders;  met  the 
jealous  knave,  their  master,  in  the  door,  who  asked  them 
once  or  twice  what  they  had  in  their  basket.  .  .  . 
Well,  on  went  he  for  a  search,  and  away  went  I  for  foul 
clothes.  But  mark  the  sequel,  master  Brook:  I  suifered 
the  pangs  of  three  several  deaths:  first,  an  intolerable 
fright;  next,  to  be  compassed,  like  a  good  bilbo,  in  the 
circumference  of  a  peck,  hilt  to  point,  heel  to  head:  and 
then,  to  be  stopped  in,  like  a  strong  distillation,  with 
stinking  clothes  that  fretted  in  their  own  grease:  think 
of  that, — a  man  of  my  kidney, — think  of  that;  that  am 
as  subject  to  heat  as'  butter;  a  man  of  continual  disso- 
lution and  thaw:  it  was  a  miracle,  to  'scape  suffocation. 
And  in  the  height  of  this  bath,  when  I  was  more  than 
half  stewed  in  grease,  like  a  Dutch  dish,  to  be  thrown 
into  the  Thames,  and  cooled,  glowing  hot,  in  that  surge, 
like  a  horseshoe;  think  of  that, — hissing  hot, — ^think  of 
that,  Master  Brook. 

—Shakespeare,  Merrv  Wives  of  Windsor,  iii,  5. 


66  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

(5)  The  Uncertain.  By  the  Uncertain  is  meant  the 
undetermined.  This  factor  holds  the  attention  through 
curiosity.  What  is  the  solution?  what  will  the  end  be? 
will  he  win  or  not?  who  did  it?  what  caused  it?  how 
can  it  be  done?  will  Komeo  marry  Juliet?  will  Shylock 
get  his  pound  of  flesh? — whenever  the  development  and 
outcome  are  in  doubt  there  is  interestingness  and  (unless 
the  listener  believes  himself  concerned  harmfully) 
pleasure. 

(6)  The  Similar.  The  Similar  means — like  our  likes, 
similar  to  our  tastes  and  sentiments.  The  lover  of  Shake- 
speare will  greedily  devour  your  eulogy  of  the  master; 
the  artist  eagerly  listens  to  talks  on  pictures;  the  writer, 
to  talks  on  literature;  the  scientist,  to  chats  on  science; 
the  merchant,  to  talks  on  business.  On  the  table  of  the 
sportsman  is  the  sporting  periodical;  in  the  chess  player's 
hands  is  the  chess  magazine;  the  preacher  reads  the  homi- 
letic  review;  the  lawyer,  his  law  journal.  We  are  inter- 
ested and  take  pleasure  in  things  similar  to  our  likes. 

Interest  in  the  following  arises  from  this  Factor: 
"I  do  much  wonder,  that  one  man,  seeing  how  much 
another  man  is  a  fool  when  he  dedicates  his  behaviours 
to  love,  will,  after  he  hath  laughed  at  such  shallow  follies 
in  others,  become  the  argument  of  his  own  scorn  by  falling 
in  love :  and  such  a  man  is  Claudio.  I  have  known,  when 
there  was  no  music  with  him  but  the  drum  and  the  fife; 
and  now  had  he  rather  hear  the  tabor  and  the  pipe:  I 
have  known  when  he  would  have  walked  ten  mile  a  foot 
to  see  a  good  armour ;  and  now  will  he  lie  ten  nights  awake, 
carving  the  fashion  of  a  new  doublet.  He  was  wont  tj 
speak  plain,  and  to  the  purpose,  like  an  honest  man,  and  a 


ENTEBTAINMENT  AND  INTERESTINQNES8         67 

soldier;  and  now  is  he  turn'd  orthographer :  his  words 
are  a  very  fantastical  banquet,  just  so  many  strange 
dishes." — Shakespeare,  Much  Ado  About  Nothing,  2,  3. 
Here  the  theme  (love)  tallies  with  one  of  our  likes 
(Tastes). 

(7)  The  Antagonistic.  The  Antagonistic  implies  con- 
flict. The  listener  is  interested  in  people  or  things  in 
contention.  Land  and  sea  fights,  feuds,  quarrels,  contests 
of  sport — baseball,  football,  horse-racing;  intellectual  com- 
bats—debates, disputes,  business  struggles;  the  forces  of 
nature  in  turmoil — great  storms,  earthquakes,  floods — two 
or  more  people,  animals  or  things  in  conflict  or  collision, 
will,  in  greater  or  less  degree,  arouse  interest  and  (with 
few  exceptions)  give  enjoyment.    Example: 

"And  here  I'll  fling  the  pillow,  there  the  bolster ; 
This  way  the  coverlet,  another  way  the  sheets: 

And  if  she  chance  to  nod,  I'll  rail  and  brawl, 
And  with  the  clamour  keep  her  still  awake. 

— Shakespeare,  Taming  of  the  Shrew,  iv,  1. 
In  heavier  vein : 
"For  brave  Macbeth  (well  he  deserves  that  name). 
Disdaining  fortune,  with  his  brandish'd  steel. 
Which  smok'd  with  bloody  execution, 
Like  valour's  minion,  carv'd  out  his  passage. 
Till  he  fac'd  the  slave; 

Which  ne'er  shook  hands,  nor  bade  farewell  to  him, 
Till  he  unseam'd  him  from  the  nave  to  the  chaps, 
And  fix'd  his  head  upon  our  battlements." 

— Shakespeare,  Macbeth,  i,  1. 


68  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

(8)  The  Animate.  The  Animate  means  activity,  move- 
ment, life.  The  listener  is  interested  in  that  which  is 
alive,  or  has  motion,  in  preference  to  that  which  is  life- 
less or  motionless.  People  take  precedence  over  things, 
and,  among  things,  the  animate  over  the  inanimate.  What 
shop  window  gathers  the  crowd?  That  with  the  moving 
toy — the  running  engine,  the  climbing  monkey.  Animate 
thought  and  language  are  more  interesting  than  inani- 
mate. "To  suffer  the  slings  and  arrows  of  outrageous 
fortune"  is  more  interesting  than  "to  suffer  misfortune''; 
"our  stern  alarms  changed  to  merry  meetings,  dreadful 
marches  to  delightful  measures,"  is  more  interesting  than 
"war  is  now  peace."    Example : 

"From  camp  to  camp,  through  the  foul 

womb  of  night. 
The  hum  of  either  army  stilly  sounds. 
That  the  fix'd  sentinels  almost  receive 
The  secret  whispers  of  each  other's  watch ; 
Fire  answers  fire,  and  through  their  paly  flames 
Each  battle  sees  the  other's  umber'd  face ; 
Steed  threatens  steed,  in  high  and  boastful  neighs 
Piercing  the  night's  dull  ear;  and  from  the  tents 
The  armourers  accomplishmg  the  knights, 
With  busy  hammers  closing  rivets  up. 
Give  dreadful  note  of  preparation." 

— Shakespeare,  Henry  V,  Chorus,  Act  4. 

(9)  The  Concrete.  The  Concrete  means  the  tangible 
as  opposed  to  the  intangible  and  the  abstract.     To  the 


ENTEETAINMENT  AND  INTERESTINGNESS         69 

average  listener  the  philosopher  is  more  interesting  than 
the  philosophy;  Christ's  life  more  interesting  than  Chris- 
tian life  in  the  abstract ;  Solomon's  Temple  is  more  fasci- 
nating than  the  theory  of  architecture.  Similarly  with 
language.  "The  sword"  arrests  the  attention  more  than 
"conflict,"  "the  ballot"  more  than  "exercising  the  right  of 
franchise."  Other  things  equal,  the  speaker  interests  and 
entertains  in  the  degree  that  he  uses  the  Concrete. 
Example : 

"No,  faith,  die  by  attorney.  The  poor  world  is  almost 
six  thousand  years  old,  and  in  all  this  time  there  was  not 
any  man  died  in  his  own  person,  \'idelicct,  in  a  love-cause. 
Troilus  had  his  brains  dashed  out  with  a  Grecian  club; 
yet  he  did  what  he  could  to  die  before,  and  he  is  one  of 
the  patterns  of  love.  Leander,  he  would  have  lived  many 
a  fair  year,  though  Hero  had  turned  nun,  if  it  had  not 
been  for  a  hot  midsummer  night;  for,  good  youth,  he 
went  forth  to  wash  in  the  Hellespont,  and,  being  taken 
with  the  cramp,  was  drowned :  and  the  foolish  chroniclers 
of  that  age  found  it  was — Hero  of  Sestos.  But  these  are 
all  lies:  men  have  died  from  time  to  time,  and  worms 
have  eaten  them,  but  not  for  love." 

— Shakespeare,  As  You  Like  It,  iv,  1. 

(10     The   Seven  Factors  Applied  and   Distinguished 

The    following    illustration  will    show    the    distinction 

between  the  Seven  Factors  of  Interestingness,  and  also 
how  they  can  be  applied: 


70  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

The  American  Navy  deserves  our  admiration; 
(because)  it  has  a  splendid  record  of  achievement. 

The  Vital — It  has  preserved  our  nation  from  foreign 
invasion. 

The  Unusual — It  has  won  battles  at  the  most  remark- 
able odds  in  the  history  of  naval  warfare. 

The  Uncertain — Its  record  teems  with  stories  of  courage 
and  daring. 

The  Similar — It  furnishes  instances  of  splendid  self- 
sacrifice — 

The  Antagonistic — and  of  hand-to-hand  struggles. 

The  Animate — It  has  a  proud  record  of  famous  chases. 

The  Concrete — To  it  belongs  the  inspiring  story  of  Paul 
Jones. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  well-chosen  amplification  of  the 
foregoing  statements  would  make  a  highly  interesting  talk. 

(11)    A  classical  example  of  the  use  of  these   Seven 
Factors  is  found  in  the  following: 

"For  once,  upon  a  raw  and  gusty  day, 

The  troubled  Tiber  chafing  with  her  shores, 

Cassar  said  to  me,  'Dar'st  thou,  Cassius,  now, 

Leap  in  with  me  into  this  angry  flood. 

And  swim  to  yonder  point?' — Upon  the  word, 

Accoutred  as  I  was,  I  plunged  in, 

And  bade  him  follow :   so,  indeed,  he  did. 

The  torrent  roared ;  and  we  did  buffet  it 

With  lusty  sinews,  throwing  it  aside, 

And  stemming  it  with  hearts  of  controversy. 

But  ere  we  could  arrive  the  point  proposed, 

Caesar  cried,  'Help  me,  Cassius,  or  I  sink.' 


ENTERTAINMENT  AND  INTERESTINGNESS         71 

I,  as  ^neas,  our  great  ancestor, 
Did  from  the  flames  of  Troy  upon  his  shoulder 
The  old  Anchises  bear,  so  from  the  waves  of  Tiber 
Did  I  the  tired  Cssar." 

— -Shakespeare,  Julius  Caesar,  i,  2. 

When  we  keep  in  view  the  friendship  of  Brutus  for 
Cassius,  we  find  in  this  example  all  of  the  Seven  Factors. 
It  tells  of  the  exploits  of  a  friend  (Vital,  through  affec- 
tion) ;  it  is  a  contest  out  of  the  ordinary  (Unusual) ;  there 
is  curiosity  as  to  the  details  (Uncertain) ;  it  is  a  story 
that  pleases  the  taste  for  adventure  (Similar) ;  it  tells  of 
two  people  in  competition  (the  Antagonistic) ;  it  is  a 
story  of  people  and  of  movement  (Animate) ;  it  deals 
with  two  specific  personalities  (Concrete) — all  the  Factors 
of  Interestingness  are  brought  into  successful  play, 

(12)  The  Power  of  the  Factors.  In  regard  to  the 
relative  value  of  the  Seven  Factors,  we  find  it  impossible 
to  state  this  accurately.  Their  interestingness  varies  with 
the  listener.  Speaking  approximately,  they  rank  in  the 
order  first  given.  Humor  is  found  mainly  under  the 
Unusual,  and  this  makes  it  a  very  effective  Factor  for 
Entertainment.  The  value  in  a  particular  instance  must 
be  determined  by  the  specific  conditions. 

(13)  The  Factors  and  Reference  to  Experience.  Like 
the  Impelling  Motives,  the  Factors  of  Interestingness  are 
most  effective  when  used  in  connection  with  the  principle 
of  Reference  to  Experience.  It  may  be  stated  as  a  work- 
ing principle,  that  the  more  the  Factors  are  brought  vividly 
into  listener's  experience,  the  greater  the  interest,  and  (if 
listener  not  harmfully  concerned)    the  more   likely  the 


72  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

speaker  will  attain  the  General  End  of  Entertainment. 

(14)  The  Vital  and  Reference  to  Experience.  If  the 
Vital  is  used,  the  speaker  can  make  it  most  Vital,  and 
therefore  most  interesting,  by  selecting  the  listener's  most 
vivid  experience.  Thus  Mark  Twain,  talking  to  war  veter- 
ans on  "The  Babies,"  makes  his  theme  interesting  and 
entertaining  by  using  the  Vital  in  connection  with  those 
experiences  that  are  most  vividly  engraved  on  their  minds 
as  parents — "clawing  whiskers,"  "pulling  hair,"  "twist- 
ing nose,"  "getting  up  at  half  past  two  in  the  morning," 
"singing  *rock-a-bye,  baby,'"  and  so  on.  The  Factor  of 
the  Vital  is  increased  in  interestingness  in  the  degree 
that  it  is  brought  vividly  into  listener's  experience. 

(15)  The  Unusual  and  Reference  to  Experience.  The 
application  of  the  principle  of  Eeference  to  Experience  to 
the  Unusual  seems,  on  its  face,  a  paradox.  Yet  a  little 
examination  will  show  how  such  application  is  possible 
and,  moreover,  effective.  The  Unusual,  to  be  interesting 
or  entertaining,  must  be  intelligible;  further,  it  must  be 
impressive;  and  we  have  already  shown  that  intelligibility 
and  impressiveness  become  greatest  by  the  use  of  the  most 
vivid  experience.  That  which  makes  the  Unusual  inter- 
esting, as  a  rule,  is  the  fact  that  it  consists  of  extreme 
degrees  or  unique  combination  of  things  already  known. 
Intelligibility  demands  this.  And  even  the  exception  to 
this,  where  the  thing  is  in  all  respects  different,  the 
speaker  to  arouse  interest  must  liken  it  to  experience. 

rule,  therefore,  holds  good  that  the  Unusual  becomes 
interesting  in  the  degree  that  the  essential  of  the  unusual 
thing  is  brought  vividly  into  the  listener's  experience  or 
likened  to  that  experience.     Thus,  a  noted  lecturer,  in  dis- 


ENTERTAINMENT  AND  INTERESTINGNESS         73 

cussing  success,  interests  us  by  the  use  of  the  Unusual, 
but  does  80  through  the  medium  of  reference  to  experience. 
He  gives  an  instance  of  a  woman  who  became  rich  through 
the  invention  of  a  collar  button,  another  of  a  man  who 
made  thousands  of  dollars  out  of  two  trout,  both  of  which 
instances,  while  in  themselves  outside  the  actual  experience 
of  the  listener,  yet  deal  with  classes  of  things  with  which 
he  is  familiar,  and  opportunities  that  may  be  right  where 
he  is  now,  for  "cannot  I  buy  two  trout?"  "cannot  I  equal 
a  collar  button  invention?"  Similarly  we  are  interested 
much  more  in  the  extraordinary  doings  of  our  friends 
(thoee  who  come  close  into  experience)  than  in  the  extra- 
ordinary doings  of  strangers.  An  excellent  illustration  of 
the  basic  importance  of  Eeference  to  Experience  in  the 
effective  use  of  the  Unusual  is  found  in  the  description 
by  Encbarbus  of  Cleopatra  and  her  barge : 

"The  barge  she  sat  in,  like  a  bumish'd  throne, 
Burn'd  on  the  water:  the  poop  was  beaten  gold; 
Purple  the  sails,  and  so  perfumed,  that 
The  winds  were  love-sick  with  them :    the  oars 

were  silver; 
Wliich  to  the  tune  of  flutes  kept  stroke,  and  made 
The  water,  which  they  beat,  to  follow  faster, 
As  amorous  of  their  strokes.     For  her  own  person, 
It  beggar'd  all  description ;  she  did  lie 
In  her  pavilion — cloth-of-gold  of  tissue — 
O'er-picturing  that  Venus,  where  we  see 
The  fancy  out-work  nature:  on  each  eide  her. 


74  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

Stood  pretty  dimpled  boys,  like  smiling  Cupids, 
With  divers-colour'd  fans,  whose  wind  did  seem 
To  glow  the  delicate  cheeks  which  they  did  cool 
And  what  they  undid,  did." 

— Shakespeare,  Antony  and  Cleopatra,  ii,  2. 

Here  "beaten  gold,"  "purple,"  "silver,"  "tune  of  flutes" 
come  vividly  into  our  experience  as  do  "barge,"  "sails," 
"oars."  The  Unusual  is  produced  by  associating  those 
vivid  experiences  that  are  commonly  disassociated — 
"barge"  with  "burnished  throne,"  "sails"  with  "purple," 
"winds"  with  "love  sick,"  "oars"  with  "silver"  and  "tune 
of  flutes."  The  combinations  are  new  but  the  elements 
are  familiar  and  therein  lies  the  charm.  The  more  the 
Unusual,  in  its  fundamental,  comes  into  listener's  ex- 
perience the  greater  the  interest,  and  (if  pleasurable)  the 
greater  the  Entertainment. 

(16)  The  Similar  and  Reference  to  Experience.  The 
power  of  the  Principle  of  Reference  to  Experience  in  re- 
spect to  the  Similar  is  plain.  That  which  interests  us  most, 
as  a  rule,  is  the  most  vivid  of  our  favorable  experiences. 
Our  feelings  are  usually  deeply  centered  in  such.  If  we  like 
a  certain  novel  our  interest  is  greatest  if  the  speaker  refers 
to  those  passages,  characters  or  incidents  that  are  most 
deeply  engraved  on  our  mind.  If  painting  is  our  especial 
delight  the  speaker  most  interests  (and  entertains)  us  if 
he  refers  to  those  paintings  which  to  us  are  most  vivid. 
If  we  are  told  that  the  garden  was  beautiful  we  will  have 
the  greatest  interest  and  delight  if  the  description  includes 
the  flowers  that  have  come  pleasurably  close  to  our  lives. 
We   are   interested   by  the   speaker's   talk   on   the   ideal 


ENTERTAINMENT  AND  INTERESTINGNESS         75 

woman,  in  the  degree  that  his  details  have,  as  a  basis,  our 
most  intense  sensations.  If  we  admire  a  certain  type  of 
beauty,  then  must  the  speaker  dilate  upon  that  t}-pe  of 
beauty  if  he  would  interest  us  the  most  deeply  and  give 
us  the  greatest  pleasure.  He  may  increase  these  charac- 
teristics to  the  Nth  degree  (and  that  much  greater  the 
interest),  but  first  he  must  come  into  our  type,  which 
type,  analyzed,  is  our  most  vivid  experience  in  respect  to 
beauty.  The  Similar,  therefore,  to  be  most  interesting 
and  entertaining,  demands  Reference  to  Experience. 

(17)  The  Uncertain  and  Reference  to  Experience.  With 
the  Uncertain  effectiveness  still  demands  Reference  to  Ex- 
perience. Our  suspense  will  be  the  greater  in  the  degree 
that  the  thing  enveloped  in  uncertainty  comes  most  im- 
pressively into  our  lives.  The  football  player  will  listen 
with  bated  breath  to  the  story  of  a.  fierce  football  game, 
whereas  the  listener  unfamiliar  with  the  game  will  be 
comparatively  indifferent.  A  citizen  awaits  with  keener 
interest  the  results  of  a  national  election  in  his  own  coun- 
try than  he  does  those  of  a  foreign  election.  The  more 
vividly  the  thing  about  which  we  are  in  suspense  comes 
into  our  experience  the  greater  the  interest. 

(18)  The  Antagonistic  and  Reference  to  Experience. 
The  Antagonistic  is  also  governed  by  the  same  law  of 
Reference  to  Experience.  The  closer  the  people  or  things 
in  conflict  come  into  our  experience  the  greater  the  in- 
terest. To  the  swordsman  the  account  of  a  sword  combat 
is  more  interesting  and  pleasing  than  the  account  of  a 
fight  with  rapiers.  The  congressman  listens  to  a  political 
debate  with  greater  zest  than  does  the  prize  fighter.     Con- 


76  EI-FBCTIVE  SPEAKING 

flict  dealing  with  that  which  is  most  vivid  to  the  listener 
gives  him  the  greatest  interest  and  pleasure. 

(19)  The  Animate  and  Reference  to  Experience. 
Similarly  with  the  Animate.  That  movement  or  action 
which  most  touches  our  lives  gives  the  greatest  joy.  "They 
played  baseball"  is  animate,  but  not  as  interesting  or 
entertaining  as  *''Get  ready  the  bats  and  take  your  posi- 
tions. Now,  give  us  the  ball.  Too  low.  Don't  strike. 
Too  high.  Don't  strike.  There  it  comes  like  lightning. 
Strike.  Away  it  soars !  Higher !  Higher  I  Run !  An- 
other base !  Faster !  Faster !  Good !  All  around  at  one 
stroke!"  (T.  D.  Tahnage,  "Big  Blunders/')  Here  the 
Animate  comes  so  vividly  into  our  lives  that  we  again  go 
through  the  game.  The  more  the  Animate  comes  into 
the  listener's  realm  of  reality  that  much  greater  will  be 
the  interest. 

(20)  The  Concrete  and  Reference  to  Experience.  The 
Concrete  also  affords  greater  interest  and  pleasure  the 
more  it  comes  into  the  listener's  experience.  "Home" 
calls  up  more  intense  sensations  than  "house,"  because  the 
former  is  our  deeper,  more  xdvid,  experience.  "Mother" 
is  more  interesting  than  "parent";  "violets"  and  "roses" 
arouse  more  interest  and  give  greater  joy  than  "flowers." 
The  closer  the  concrete  touches  our  experience  the  greater 
its  interestingness  and  the  greater  its  power  of  enter- 
tainment. 

(21)  Interestingness  Essential  to  All  the  General  Ends. 
Not  only  is  Interestingness  essential  to  Entertainment,  it 
is  necessary  to  the  achievement  of  all  the  General  Ends. 
Therefore,  this  Chapter  cannot  be  too  carefully  studied. 
If  the  Factors  of  Interestingness  and  the  method  of  thei-r 


ENTERTAINMENT  AND  INTERESTINGNESS         77 

application  are  maatered  the  speaker  or  writer  will  find 
a  marked  increase  in  his  power  to  select  the  most  inter« 
esting  material.  If  the  subject  is  Washington  ajid  tlie 
purpose  is  eulogy,  (Impressiveness)  the  mastery  of  these 
Factors  will  cause  the  speaker  to  ignore  the  common- 
places, the  dry  dates,  the  abstract  philosophy,  the  trite 
facts,  and,  instead,  will  move  him  to  seize  upon  the  great 
moments  when  almost  insurmountable  obstacles  were  over- 
come, upon  those  crises  when  the  fate  of  Washington  or 
the  people  he  fought  for,  was  in  the  balance,  upon  the 
great  hours  of  self-sacrifice,  of  heroism,  of  extraordinary 
conflict,  upon  events  brimful  of  animation  and  move- 
ment— upon  those  things  that  fascinate  and  enchain  the 
listener. 

(23)  In  business  and  social  circles  it  will  be  found 
that  skill  in  the  use  of  these  Factors  enables  us  to  prevent 
conversation  from  growing  dull  and  commonplace.  Not 
only  are  facta,  anecdotes,  examples,  arguments  used  that 
interest  and  entertain,  but  there  is  developed  the  ability 
to  ask  questions  that  bring  forth  interesting  replies,  and 
thus  the  Factors  enable  us  to  be  entertained  as  well  as  to 
entertain.  He  who  makes  himself  a  conversationalist  and 
speaker  that  can  interest,  not  only  increases  his  chances 
of  personal  success,  but  adds  immensely  to  the  pleasure  of 
others. 

(23)  It  is  helpful  to  note  the  Factors  used  by  great 
speakers  and  writers.  Patrick  Henry  in  his  'Tiiberty  or 
Death"  uses  the  Vital ;  Wendell  Phillips  in  his  'T^ost  Arts'* 
charms  his  listeners  by  means  of  the  Unusual,  and  in  his 
"Toussaint  L'Ouverture,"  by  use  of  the  Unusual  and  the 
Similar.     Talmage  in  his  "Big  Blunder?"  captivates  at 


78  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING  ^ 

through  the  Vital  and  the  Animate.  Beecher  interests  us  ^ 
largely  through  the  Unusual  and  the  Vital.  Demosthenes  " 
relies  upon  the  Vital,  as  does  Victor  Hugo.  Milton,  in 
"Paradise  Lost,"  the  Unusual  and  the  Antagonistic; 
Dante,  in  the  "Divine  Comedy,"  the  Unusual  ajid  the 
Concrete;  Shakespeare,  the  Antagonistic,  Uncertain  and 
Unusual.  All  use  the  Animate,  Shakespeare  in  this  being 
pre-eminent.  The  speaker  will  find  it  to  his  advantage 
to  analyze  representative  works  of  the  master  speakers 
with  regard  to  the  Factors  of  Interestingness. 


! 


I 


i. 


;( 


% 


CHAPTER  VII. 

CUMULATION. 

(1)  Next  in  miportance  to  the  principle  of  Reference 
to  Experience,  and  closely  related  to  it,  is  the  principle 
of  Cumulation.  Cumulation  is'  a  "heaping  up,"  a  suc- 
cession of  statements  bearing  upon  the  same  point.  We 
say,  "many  men  over-sixty  have  displa3^ed  great  efficiency," 
and  continue,  "Benjamin  Franklin  most  helped  his  coun- 
try after  he  was  sixty;  Palmerston  was  premier  of  Eng- 
land at  eighty-one,  Gladstone  at  eighty-three.  Bismarck 
was  vigorously  administering  the  affairs  of  the  German 
Empire  at  seventy-four;  Crispi  was  premier  of  Italy  at 
seventy-five;  Pope  Leo  directed  the  Pontificate  at  ninety- 
three;  Adams  at  ninety  and  Jefferson  at  eighty  were 
forces  in  American  affairs.  Verdi  wrote  operas  after  he 
was  eighty;  Titian  painted  when  he  was  ninety-eight; 
Cervantes  did  not  finisli  his  Don  Quixote  until  sixty-eight 
Herbert  Spencer  at  eighty-three,  Tolstoi  at  seventy-four 
were  literary  Titans."  This  support  is  Cumulation.  Each 
instance  has  carried  the  mind  back  to  the  original  asser- 
tion. 

(2)  Tlie  Function  of  Cumulation.  The  function  of 
Cumulation  is  obvious.  By  a  succession  of  details,  in- 
stances,   illustrations,    it    seeks    to    direct    the    listeners 

79 


80  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

attention  again  and  again  and  again  to  the  original  state- 
ment until  the  required  Clearness,  Impressiveness,  Belief, 
Action  or  Entertainment  is  attained. 

(3)  The  Need  of  Cumulation.  The  need  of  Cumula- 
tion becomes  apparent  when  we  remember  that  in  the 
majority  of  cases  we  cannot  attain  our  aim  instantly.  A 
simple  assertion  is  not  adequate.  We  cannot  make  our 
conception  of  "triune  nature,"  "spirit,"  "soul,"  effectively 
clear  in  a  phrase.  We  cannot  arouse  profound  feeling  for 
our  statement  that  "Milton  was  great"  in  two  or  three 
words.  Our  assertion  that  "Child  Labor  is  wrong"  en- 
genders little  or  no  emotion  standing  alone.  An  isolated 
statement  does  not  change  a  belief  or  send  a  man  to  the 
ballot  box  or  make  him  contribute  to  a  charity.  We  do 
not  make  men  see,  feel  or  do  in  a  sentence.  Our  idea  ia 
either  indefinite  or  possesses  too  large  a  content  for  instant 
ppprehension  or  appreciation.  And  with  the  utterance  of 
others — who  remembers  the  speech  of  last  month,  the 
sermon  of  last  Sunday?  Of  the  hundreds  of  talks,  con- 
versations, lectures  we  have  heard  how  much  remains  that 
we  can  put  to  use,  how  much  has  affected  us  permanently  ? 
And  obversely  what  things  do  we  remember?  Those 
things  which  have  been  brought  to  our  attention  again 
and  again.  We  spell,  we  talk,  we  read  because  of  per- 
sistent and  recurrent  concentration.  We  know  best  those 
things  which  our  teachers  "hammered"  into  us,  which 
were  made  to  claim  our  interest  for  more  than  a  passing 
moment,  and  those  things  which  were  skimmed  over  by 
our  teachers  or  by  ourselves  have  long  since  vanished. 

(4)  Further  apparent  becomes  the  need  of  Cumulation 
%rnen  we  realize  the  conditions  governing  the  listener. 


CUMULATION  81 

The  listener  is  compelled  to  comprehend  the  speaker 
while  he  speaks.  He  cannot,  like  the  reader,  pause,  re- 
flect, leave  in  abeyance.  He  cannot  consult  a  dictionary 
or  encyclopocdia.  He  cannot  interrupt  and  demand  an 
explanation.  He  must  see  and  feel  the  idea  then  and 
there  or  not  at  all.  Therefore,  the  truths  of  the  moral, 
intellectual  and  spiritual  world  to  be  effective,  to  be  proof 
against  that  evaporation  which  overtakes  everything  that 
the  brain  merely  records,  must  be  driven  down  deep.  There 
must  be  a  succession  of  impressions  all  emphasizing  the 
first.  Over  and  over  and  over  again  must  the  mind  have 
its  attention  riveted  upon  the  thought;  experience  upon 
experience  must  be  piled  up  until  the  very  weight  imbeds 
the  thought  deep  in  the  tissues  of  the  brain.  Then  it 
becomes  part  of  him  and  neither  time  nor  events  can  rub 
it  out.  And  the  working  principle  that  does  this  is  Cumu- 
lation. 

(5)  Example  of  Pawer  of  Cumulation.  By  the  use  of 
Cumulation  the  speaker  can  give  the  listener  the  necessary 
time  and  expend  upon  him  the  necessary  energy.  Each 
detail  or  illustration  works  in  time,  and  each  has  a  given 
power  which  adds  to  the  total  force.  Thus  to  say  that 
Edison  has  been  of  inestimable  benefit  to  mankind  may 
make  a  slight  impression,  but,  when  working  through  time 
and  force  by  means  of  Cumulation,  we  are  told  that, 
among  other  things,  he  invented  the  phonograph,  the 
mimeograph,  the  electric  pen  and  the  kinetescope;  that 
he  conceived  and  perfected  the  electric  lighting  station 
with  its  incandescent  lamp,  and  thereby  revolutionized  our 
lighting  methods;  that  he  invented  and  perfected  the 
process  for  the  extraction  of  imti  ore  by  electricity,  and 


83  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

has  brought  to  perfection  a  storage  battery;  and  that,  in- 
cidentally, he  has  taken  out  several  hundred  patents  cover' 
ing  other  useful  inventions — when  we  hear  all  this  the 
idea  that  Edison  has  been  of  great  benefit  to  mankind 
becomes  a  profound  conviction  that  can  never  be  effaced. 

(6)  Again,  if  we  wished  to  convince  someone  that  the 
United  States  improved  conditions  in  Cuba  it  is  not  suffi- 
cient to  simply  make  this  bold  assertion.  We  must  lead 
the  listener  back  to  the  thought  again  and  again.  We 
should  tell  our  listener  that: 

"The  United  States  Government  may  felicitate  itself 
upon  the  fact  that  it  found  Cuba  unhealthy  and  leaves  it 
healthy;  it  found  her  without  an  adequate  system  of 
charities  and  hospitals  and  it  leaves  her  a  well  established 
one;  it  found  her  without  schools  and  it  leaves  her  with 
a  good  school  law  and  a  good  school  system  established. 
It  found  the  island  filled  with  beggars  and  with  an  empty 
treasury;  it  leaves  it  without  beggars,  its  people  with 
enough  to  eat,  and  with  a  reserve  of  about  a  million  and 
a  half  dollars  in  the  treasury.  It  found  her  without  any 
knowledge  of  popular  elections  and  without  an  electoral 
law;  it  has  given  her  both.  It  found  the  insane  without 
any  systematic  treatment  whatever,  caged  up  like  animals ; 
it  leaves  them  assembled  in  the  large  hospital  under  the 
best  available  treatment.  It  found  her  prisons  indescrib- 
ably bad,  and  leaves  them  as  good  as  the  average  prisons 
of  the  United  States.  It  has  built  up  a  good  system  of 
sanitary  supervision  throughout  the  island.  It  has  built 
and  put  into  commission  a  small  fleet  of  coast  guard 
launches,  or  revenue  cutters.  It  has  collected  the  revenues 
at  a  figure  which  compares  favorably  with  the  cost  of  col- 


CUMULATION  83 

lection  in  the  United  States.  It  has  buoyed  the  harbors 
and  has  added  very  largely  to  the  lighthouses  and  lights 
of  the  island.  An  immense  amount  of  road  and  bridge 
building  has  been  done.  It  has  organized  a  system  of 
civil  service  for  the  municipal  police  throughout  the 
island  in  order  to  protect  them  in  their  rights  and  secure 
them  from  arbitrary  dismissal.  It  has  enlisted,  equipped, 
trained  and  thoroughly  established  a  Eural  Guard  which 
will  compare  favorably  with  any  similar  force,  and  not 
over  one  per  cent  of  those  employed  in  this  work  has  come 
from  beyond  the  borders  of  Cuba  herself.  For  the  first 
time  in  history  the  carpet  bagger  in  a  situation  of  this 
kind  has  been  held  in  subjection  and  every  penny  of  the 
trust  has  been  administered  for  the  benefit  of  the  ward." 

— Harper's  Weekly. 

This  Cumulation  makes  the  original  assertion  perma- 
nent and  vivid. 

(7)  The  Elective  Use  of  Cumulation.  In  determining 
the  relative  value  of  Cumulations  we  find  that  that  Cumu- 
lation will  be  the  most  effective  which  works  most  in 
harmony  with  the  Principle  of  Reference  to  Experience. 
If,  as  we  have  seen  in  a  preceding  chapter,  the  General 
Ends  we  seek  in  speech  are  most  quickly  attained  by 
Reference  to  Experience,  then,  as  Cumulation  is  but  a 
means  to  these  Ends,  it  follows  that  it  will  be  most  power- 
ful when  it  most  conforms  to  the  principle  of  coming 
into  the  listener's  life.  The  working  method  governing 
the  use  of  Cumulation  is: 

(a)  As  far  as  possible  Cumulation  should  consist  of 
experiences  of  the  listener. 


84  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

(b)  Experiences  should  be  selected  that  come  into  tha 

listener's  life  most  vividly. 

(c)  Experiences  must  be  increased  in  number  in  the 
degree  that  the  End  is  hard  to  attain. 

(8)  Appreciate  the  Need  of  Cumulation.  Skill  in  the 
use  of  Cumulation  is  developed,  primarily,  by  a  thorough 
appreciation  of  its  need.  The  speaker  must  realize  vividly 
how  evanescent  is  speech,  how  quickly  the  thing  uttered 
passes  out  of  recollection.  He  should  reflect  on  the  enor- 
mous waste  of  speech  because  of  this  lack  of  adequate 
Cumulation,  the  failure  to  drive  the  idea  fully  home,  to 
make  it  adequately  vivid.  Further,  he  should  study  the 
master  speakers,  and  thus  see  for  himself  that  their  suc- 
cess, in  large  measure,  was  due  to  the  use  of  Cumulation. 

(9)  Cumulation  Needs  Comprehensive  Grasp.  Effec- 
tive Cumulation  demands  further  that  the  speaker  have 
ready  for  instant  use  all  the  facts  and  details  pertinent  to 
his  particular  aim.  He  must  see  his  subject  matter  in  all 
its  ramifications.  If  he  seeks  to  propound  a  theory  he 
must  be  master  of  its  every  phase;  if  he  urges  a  course 
of  conduct  he  should  familiarize  himself  witii  all  the  joys 
and  ills  it  involves ;  if  he  seeks  belief  for  a  political  policy 
he  must  know  that  policy  through  and  through;  if  he 
would  dilate  on  the  worthiness  of  certain  wares  he  must 
know  their  kind,  quality,  degree  and  worth  actually  and 
comparatively — whatever  the  proposition  the  speaker 
should  strive  to  have  complete  knowledge  of  the  things  it 
includes,  in  order  that  his  Cumulation  may  be  tlie  most 
effective  possible. 

(10)  Effective  Cumulation  Demands  a  Ready  KnowU 
edge  of  Experiences.    As  far  as  practicable,  the  speaker 


CUMULATION  85 

should  have  at  the  tip  of  his  tongue  experiences  that  are 
uniyersal;  next,  those  that  are  common  to  the  class  or 
classes  of  people  among  whom  he  must  work,  and  finally, 
those  vivid  with  his  particular  listener  or  listeners.  He 
should  go  over  these  carefully,  weighing  their  relative 
values  from  the  point  of  view  of  his  aim  and  determine 
which  are  most  impressive,  which  will  most  secure  belief, 
most  give  pleasure,  and  so  on,  as  the  case  may  be.  Then 
he  will  be  ready  for  every  emergency. 

(11)  Practical  Application  of  Cumulation.  Power  in 
the  use  of  Cumulation  is  further  secured  by  daily  practice 
of  it.  Seize  every  legitimate  opportunity.  Use  it  in  the 
home  circle,  in  the  social  field;  use  it  in  business.  If  the 
salesman  has  a  set  of  books  to  sell — say  some  volumes  of 
representative  speeches — let  him  at  once  put  the  principle 
of  Cumulation  to  practical  use.  Let  him  master  all  the 
features  of  the  set  that  would  likely  appeal  to  the  exper- 
ience of  the  possible  purchaser  and  move  him  to  action. 
If  true,  he  will  tell  him  that  a  few  minutes'  reading  of 
the  volumes  daily  will  give  liim  a  vast  amount  of  material 
which  he  can  put  to  profitable  use  in  his  business  and 
social  intercourse.  He  will  refer,  in  detail,  to  the  speeches 
which  are  valuable  for  facts.  He  will  indicate  the  lec- 
turers whose  stj'les  are  considered  models;  he  will  tell  of 
the  speeches  that  provoke  thought  and  originality;  he  will 
show  how  others  are  master  lessons  in  construction.  By 
specific  illustration  he  will  show  how  certain  of  the 
speeches  are  rich  with  gems  of  thought  and  beauties  of 
phrase.  He  will  point  out  other  speeches  that  are  brimful 
of  wit  and  humor.  He  will  speak  of  the  fund  of  anecdotes 
and  bright  stories  and  show  how  they  can  be  put  to  profit- 


86  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

able  use ;  he  may  touch  upon  the  spiritual  and  moral  uplift 
that  comes  from  the  perusal  of  certain  specified  lectures 
of  noted  divines,  and  he  will  dwell  strongly  upon  the 
fascinating  interest  of  a  number  of  popular  lectures  by 
famous  men.  And  by  this  Cumulation  he  will  not  only 
produce  an  impression,  but  one  so  deep  that  in  all  proba- 
bility it  moves  the  listener  to  action,  and  then  and  there 
is  consummated  a  sale. 

(12)  Cumulation  to  Secure  Impres&iveness.  Again, 
suppose  we  wish  to  produce  a  permanent  impression  that 
Edmund  Kean  was  a  great  actor.  It  is  by  no  means 
sufficient  to  say  that  "Edmund  Kean  was  great."  We 
must  use  Cumulation.  We  will  tell  our  listeners  that  the 
play  of  Kean's  expression  was  something  marvelous,  that 
the  tones  of  his  voice  were  wonderful  in  their  transitions, 
from  the  softest  coo  to  the  thunder  roar;  that  they  illus- 
trated the  darkest  of  passages,  and  that  in  the  interpreta- 
tion of  Shakespeare  he  revealed  beauties  unknown  to  the 
most  studious  of  readers ;  that  his  action  and  attitude  were 
grace  itself;  that  in  the  higher  plays  he  lifted  you  to  the 
ideal ;  that  in  the  lower  he  riveted  your  attention  with  his 
terrible  realism;  that  such  was  his  genius  that  he  pro- 
duced greater  effects  than  history  records  of  any  other 
actor;  that,  acting  with  hostile  actors  before  a  small  and 
hostile  audience  he  forced  from  stage  and  listeners  super- 
lative praise;  that  in  his  first  appearance  in  Sir  Giles 
Overreach  he  was  so  terrific  in  his  portrayal  of  agony 
that  the  solemn  stillness  was  broken  by  "screams  of  terror 
from  the  audience.  Byron,  the  poet,  was  seized  with  a 
convulsive  fit;  Mrs.  Glover,  an  experienced  actress,  fainted 
on  the  stage;  Munden,  a  tried  interpreter,  stood  trans- 


CUMULATION  8T 

iSxed  with  terror."  Actors  and  audience  were  swept  out 
of  themselves  into  the  awful  horror  of  the  scene.  Ob- 
viously, this  Cumulation  has  a  much  greater  Irapressive- 
ness  than  has  the  bare  assertion  that  Kean  was  great, 

(13)  Use  of  Cumulation  Demands  Judgment.  Judg- 
ment must  be  exercised  in  the  use  of  Cumulation.  When 
the  statement  itself  is  fully  adequate  to  the  end  in  view 
Cumulation  is  out  of  place.  To  dwell  on  that  which 
already  is  seen  or  is  believed  in  the  degree  desired  is  to 
annoy  and  disgust.  The  effective  use  of  Cumulation  de- 
pends on  a  clear  perception  of  jv^t  how  far  the  speaker 
and  the  listener  are  apart  in  respect  to  the  speaker's  aim, 

(14)  Use  Cumulation  Suited  to  the  General  End.  In 
using  Cumulation  always  keep  in  view  the  General  End. 
If  your  End  is  Clearness  use  a  cumulation  of  references 
to  experience  that  make  especially  for  Clearness.  If 
Action,  use  a  cumulation  of  references  that  touch  the 
Impelling  Motives;  if  Impressiveness,  references  that  pro- 
duce feeling;  Entertainment,  references  that  produce 
pleasure. 

(15)  Recapitulation.  In  this  Chapter  we  have  dis- 
cussed Cumulation.  We  have  shown  that  it  means  "a 
heaping  up"  on  one  idea;  that  it  is  invaluable  as  a  means 
to  effectiveness  in  speaking  because  of  its  recognition  of 
the  laws  governing  impression;  that  it  should  be  used  in 
connection  with  the  principle  of  Reference  to  Experience; 
that  it  is  most  effective  when  the  experiences  used  are  the 
most  vivid  and  suited  to  the  End;  that  skill  in  its  use  is 
developed  by  a  keen  perception  of  its  need  and  the  daily 
practice  of  it  in  ever\'-day  life,  and  that  the  degree  of  its 
use  depends  upon  the  nature  of  the  speaker's  aim  in  rela- 
tion to  the  attitude  and  knowledge  of  the  listener. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

ASSERTIONS    AND   THE    FOUR   FORMS   OF   SUPPORT. 

(1)  The  major  portion  of  utterance  resolves  itself  into 
assertions.  Something  is  or  is  not.  In  the  last  analysis 
the  lawyer  says  to  the  jury  "the  prisoner  is  innocent/* 
"my  client  is  entitled  to  ten  thousand  dollars  damages'" ; 
the  preacher  says,  "the  Christian  life  means  bliss";  the 
moralist  asserts,  "honesty  is  wise" ;  the  business  man,  "my 
goods  are  desirable,"  "my  firm  deserves  patronage";  the 
teacher,   "Napoleon  was  a  great  general,"   "Shakespeare 

•wrote  great  plays";  the  parent,  "good  children  obey^' — 
practically  all  utterance  is  reducible  to  assertion. 

(2)  Asseriions  May  Demand  Support.  We  make  asser- 
tions desiring  some  result.  We  wish  the  listener  to  see 
our  idea  clearly,  or  to  feel  it,  or  to  believe  it,  to  act  upou 
it,  or  to  find  pleasure  in  it.  Or  we  may  seek  some  com- 
bination of  these  Ends.  If  the  utterance  of  the  assertion 
alone  attains  our  desired  End  further  remark  is  a  waste 
of  time  and  energy.  If,  however,  the  assertion  does  not 
achieve  its  purpose  then,  as  shown  in  preceding  chapters, 
it  must  have  support — Cumulation.  As  experience  attests 
that  few  assertions,  isolated,  are  effective,  ike  main  busi- 
ness of  the  speaker  is  the  supporting  of  assertionsj  and  his 
great  concern  is  how  to  support  them  so  as  to  achieve  the 

m 


FOUR  FORMS  OF  SUPPORT  89 

desired  End  with  the  least  expenditure  of  time  and  effort. 

(3)  The  Four  Forms  of  Support.  If  now,  we  examine 
the  characteristics  of  the  matter  used  to  Bupport  asser- 
tions (Cumulation)  we  find  that  it  consists  of  four  kinds. 
These  may  be  named  Restatement,  General  Illustration, 
Specific  Instance,  Testimony.  Thus,  we  may  say  (Asser- 
tion), "Greece  had  great  men,'*  and  continue,  "She  had 
master  minds."  This  is  Restatement.  We  have  said  the 
same  thing  over  again  in  different  words.  We  go  on, 
"She  had  orators,  philosophers,  poets."  This  is  a  General 
Illustration.  We  have  supported  the  assertion  by  pre- 
senting some  of  its  general  features.  We  proceed,  "She 
had  Demosthenes,  Aeschines,  Aristotle,  Plato,  Homer, 
Sophocles."  This  is  Specific  Instance.  We  have  strength- 
ened our  original  assertion  by  actual  cases.  Finally,  we 
say,  "Macaulay  says:  'Her  intellectual  empire  is  imper- 
ishable.'" This  is  Testimony.  We  have  supported  our 
assertion  by  corroboration.     Our  support  stands  thus: 

Assertion :     Greece  had  great  men. 

Restatement:  She  had  master  minds;. 

General  Illustration:  She  had  orators,  philosophers, 
poets. 

Specific  Instance:  She  had  Demosthenes,  Aeschines, 
Aristotle,  Plato,  Homer,  Sophocles. 

Testimony:  Macaulay  says:  "Her  intellectual  empire 
is  imperishable." 

All  support  of  assertions,  we  shall  find,  resolves  itself 
into  one  or  more  of  these  Four  Forms. 

(4)  The  Support  of  Assertions  the  Main  Task  of  the 
Speaker.  It  will  now  be  clear  that  the  great  task  of  the 
speaker  who  would  be  effective  in  the  professional,  social 


90  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

and  business  field  is  the  development  of  judgment  in  re- 
spect to  when  and  when  not  an  assertion  needs  support; 
and  when  support  is  essential,  the  development  of  judg- 
ment in  determining  the  kind  and  degree  of  support  de- 
manded. Our  next  concern,  therefore,  is  the  consideration 
of  the  nature  and  value  of  the  Four  Forms  of  Support  in 
their  relation  to  the  principle  of  Eeference  to  Experience 
and  to  the  Five  General  Ends. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

RESTATEMENT. 

(1)  In  one  of  his  speeches  on  the  American  War,  Lord 
Chatham  makes  the  statement:  "It  is  not  a  time  for 
adulation,"  and  continues,  "The  smoothness  of  flattery 
cannot  save  us  in  this  awful  and  rugged  crisis.  It  is  now 
necessary  to  instruct  the-  throne  in  the  language  of  truth. 
We  must,  if  possible,  dispel  the  delusion  and  darkness 
which  envelop  it  and  display  in  its  full  danger  and  genuine 
colors  the  ruin  which  is  brought  to  our  doors."  These 
statements  are  a  repetition  of  the  original  assertion — 
Restatement. 

(2)  The  Nature  of  Restatement.  Restatement,  it  will 
thus  be  perceived,  is  not  a  progression  in  the  thought,  but 
a  reassertion.  It  adduces  no  proof,  offers  no  reasons, 
gives  no  details,  but  says  the  same  thing  in  a  different 
phraseology,  or,  sometimes,  in  the  same  phraseology.  It 
concerns  itself  with  equivalents,  regular,  or  figurative.  Its 
tendency  is  to  concentrate  the  listener's  attention  upon  the 
original  assertion  as  an  entity.  It  says  to  the  listener, 
"focus  your  mind  on  this  assertion  itself,  grasp  it  fully, 
feel  it  deeply,  as  a  synthetic  whole." 

(3)  The  Value  of  Eestatement.  Such  being  the  effect 
of  Restatement  its  value  to  the  speaker  is  plain.     The 

91 


92  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

speaker  will  use  Restatement  whenever  he  believes  the 
assertion  has  not  resulted  in  a  concentration  upon  itself 
adequate  to  his  purpose. 

(4)  Clearness  and  Restatement.  When  Clearness  is 
the  speaker's  aim  Eestatement  is  necessary  if  the  obscurity 
is  due  to  unfamiliarity  with  the  meaning  of  the  words  or 
to  complexity  of  structure.  In  such  case  we  need  to  keep 
the  listener's  mind  upon  the  assertion  until  every  term, 
and  the  sentence  as  a  whole,  have  the  intelligibility  desired. 
Unfamiliarity  with  a  meaning  may  be  due  tx)  the  word  be- 
ing new  to  the  listener  or  being  used  in  an  unfamiliar 
sense.  The  statement,  *^e  (Voltaire)  had  exercised  a 
function  and  fulfilled  a  mission,"  is  obscure  in  respect  to 
the  precise  meaning  of  "fulfilled  a  mission."  This  leads 
Victor  Hugo  to  restate  it — ^**He  had  evidently  been  chosen 
for  the  work  which  he  had  done  by  the  Supreme  Will 
which  manifests  itself  in  the  laws  of  destiny  as  in  the  laws 
of  nature."  The  king,  in  Hamlet,  eliminates  all  vague- 
ness from  "transformation"  by  restating  it:  "Sith  nor 
the  exterior  nor  the  inward  man  resembles  that  it  was." 
In  these  instances  Clearness  is  most  effectively  attained  by 
concentration  on  the  assertion  as  a  whole,  and,  therefore, 
demands  Restatement. 

(5)  Impressiveness  and  Restatement.  Restatement  is 
essential  to  Impressiveness  when  the  necessary  emotional 
association  can  be  attained  most  quickly  by  keeping  the 
mind  on  the  original  assertion  as  such.  Thus,  James  G. 
Blaine,  in  speaking  of  the  assassination  of  Garfield,  says: 
*^o  foreboding  of  evil  haunted  him."  The  assertion  is 
clear,  but  he  wishes  to  make  it  impressive — not  in  detail, 
but  the  idea  itself — the  unexpectedness  of  the  crime — and 


RESTATEMENT  93 

he  goes  on,  "no  slightest  premonition  of  danger  clouded 
his  sky.  His  terrible  fate  was  upon  him  in  an  instant 
One  moment  he  stood  erect,  strong,  confident,  in  the  years 
stretching  peacefully  before  him ;  the  next  he  lay  wounded, 
bleeding,  doomed  to  weary  weeks  of  torture,  to  silence  and 
the  grave."  The  listener  is  thus  made  to  feel  deeply  the 
suddenness  of  the  crime,  and  is  prepared  to  appreciate  the 
courage  of  Garfield  in  his  days  of  agony.  To  have  de- 
veloped the  idea  by  other  forms  of  support,  to  have  said, 
for  example,  that  he  received  no  letters  of  warning,  no 
threatening  telegrams,  or,  to  say  that  the  Chief  of  the 
Secret  Service  Department  had  no  warning,  would  have 
led  the  mind  into  unemotional  reflections  of  how  he  might 
have  been  warned  rather  than  to  the  fact  of  no  warning. 
Another  excellent  example  is  the  following: 

This  royal  throne  of  kings,  this  scepter'd  isle, 
This  earth  of  majesty,  this  seat  of  Mars, 
This  other  Eden,  demi-paradise ; 
This  fortress  built  by  Nature  for  herself 
Against  infestion  and  the  hand  of  war ; 
This  happy  breed  of  men,  this  little  world, 
This  precious  stone  set  in  the  silver  sea, 

This  blessed  plot,  this  earth,  this  realm,  this  England." 
— Shakespeare,  King  Eichard  II,  ii,  1. 

When  iteration  of  the  original  assertion  most  quickly 
attains  the  desired  emotional  association — most  quickly 
likens  the  unfelt  to  the  felt — the  speaker  or  writer  should 
use  Restatement. 

(6)  Belief  and  Resfaiement.    Belief  demands  Eestate- 


94  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

ment  when  doubt  is  slight  or  when  recourse  to  details  is 
too  personal,  undignified  or  impossible.  Pitt,  in  his  reply 
to  Walpole,  who  had  taunted  him  with  being  a  "young 
man,"  secures  belief  for  his  assertion  that  "Age  may  be- 
come justly  contemptible,  if  the  opportunities  which  it 
brings  have  passed  away  without  improvement,  and  vice 
appears  to  prevail  when  the  passions  have  subsided"  by 
this  biting  Eestatement: 

"The  wretch  who,  after  having  seen  the  consequences  of 
a  thousand  errors,  still  continues  to  blunder,  and  whose 
age  has  only  added  obstinacy  to  stupidity,  is  surely  the 
object  of  either  abhorrence  or  contempt,  and  deserves  not 
that  his  gray  hairs  should  secure  him  from  insult." 

— Earl  of  Chatham. 
It  would  have  been  undignified  and  unparliamentary 
to  have  named  Walpole  or  to  have  offered  proof  of  specific 
crime,  yet  to  the  members  of  the  House,  familiar  as  they 
were  with  "Walpole's  career,  Pitt's  Eestatement  adequately 
achieves  the  purpose. 

In  Henry  IV,  Prince  Harry  deeply  desires  his  father's 
belief  in  his  sincerity  of  purpose  to  lead  a  new  life.  He 
cannot  refer  to  his  past  for  proof.  The  only  course  left 
is  to  keep  the  father's  mind  focussed  upon  the  determi- 
nation itself  (Eestatement) : 

"I  shall  make  this  northern  youth  exchange 

His  glorious  deeds  for  my  indignities. 

Percy  is  but  my  factor,  good  my  lord. 

To  engross  up  glorious  deeds  on  my  behalf; 

And  I  will  call  him  to  so  strict  account. 

That  he  shall  render  every  glory  up, 

Yea,;  even  the  slightest  worship  of  his  time. 


RESTATEMENT  95 

Or  I  will  tear  the  reckoning  from  his  heart. 
This,  in  the  name  of  God,  I  promise  here." 

— Shakespeare,  King  Henry  IV,  pt.  i,  3,  2. 

(7)  Restatement  for  Undemonstrahle  Proposition. 
There  are  some  assertions  for  which  Belief  is  sought  that 
are  outside  the  pale  of  concrete  demonstration.  These,  as 
a  rule,  are  best  supported  by  Restatement,  Thus,  belief 
in  immortality  is  more  likely  to  be  secured  by  iteration  of 
the  statement  itself  than  by  attempts  at  similes,  analogies 
or  the  offering  of  details : 

"The  dead  and  the  living  are  not  names  of  two  classes 
which  exclude  each  other.  Much  rather,  there  are  none 
who  are  dead.  The  dead  are  the  living  who  have  died. 
Whilst  they  were  dying  they  lived,  and  after  they  were 
dead  they  lived  more  fully.  All  live  unto  God.  God  is 
not  the  God  of  the  dead,  but  of  the  living.  Oh,  how 
solemnly  sometimes  that  thought  comes  up  before  us,  that 
all  those  past  generations  which  have  stormed  across  this 
earth  of  ours,  and  then  have  fallen  into  still  forgetfulnesa, 
live  yet.  Somewhere,  at  this  very  instant,  they  now  verily 
are.  We  say  they  were — they  have  been.  There  are  no 
have  beens.  Life  is  life  forever.  To  be  is  eternal  being. 
Every  man  that  has  died  is  at  this  instant  in  the  full  pos- 
session of  all  his  faculties,  in  the  intensest  exercise  of  all 
his  capacities,  standing  somewhere  in  God's  great  universe 
ringed  with  the  sense  of  God's  presence,  and  feeling  in 
every  fibre  of  his  being  that  life  which  oomes  after  death 
is  not  less  real,  but  more  real — not  less  great,  but  more 
great — ^not  less  full  and  intense,  but  more  full  and  intense 
than  the  mingled  life  which,  lived  here  on  earth,  was  a 


96  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

center  of  life  surrounded  with  a  crust  and  circumference 
of  mortality.  The  dead  are  the  living.  They  lived  whilst 
they  died,  and  after  they  die  they  live  on  forever." 

— Alexander  MacLaren. 

Here  there  is  a  persistent  iteration  of  the  assertion  itself, 
which,  as  it  proceeds,  more  and  more  appeals  to  our 
spiritual  sensations.  Had  the  concrete  been  used — de- 
tails, let  us  say,  of  the  clothes  we  would  wear,  the  things 
we  would  eat,  the  effect  would  have  been  one  of  repulsion. 
The  essential  thing  here  was  a  concentration  upon  the 
thought  in  its  synthetic  form. 

(8)  Restatement  Governed  hij  Reference  to  Experience. 
In  using  Eestatement  there  must  always  be  kept  in  view 
the  Principle  of  Eeference  to  Experience  and  the  General 
Ends.  In  all  instances  that  Restatement  of  an  assertion 
will  be  best  which  is  the  nearest  equivalent  in  the  listener's 
experience  to  the  unseen,  unfelt  or  unaccepted  thing,  ac- 
cording as  the  General  End  is  Clearness,  Impressiveness 
or  Belief. 


CHAPTER  X. 

RESTATEMENT  (Continued), 

(1)  Action  and  Restatement  To  secure  Action  the 
speaker  should  use  Eestatement  when,  in  a  given  time,  a 
sustained  contemplation  of  the  proposition  as  a  whole  most 
makes  the  end  sought  desirable,  most  works  upon  the  Im- 
pelling Motives.  Eienzi,  in  his  talk  to  the  Eomans  (Mitr- 
ford),  knowing  that  his  listeners  are  aware  of  their 
thraldom,  seeks  action  by  a  vivid  repetition  of  the  fact : 

"Friends ! 

I  come  not  here  to  talk.    Ye  know  too  well 

The  story  of  our  thraldom.     We  are  slaves ! 

The  bright  sun  rises  to  his  course,  and  lights 

A  race  of  slaves !     He  sets,  and  his  last  beam 

Falls  on  a  slave!    Not  such  as  swept  along 

By  the  full  tide  of  power,  the  conqueror  leads 

To  crimson  glory  and  undying  fame, 

But  base,  ignoble  slaves!  slaves  to  a  horde 

Of  petty  tyrants,  feudal  despots:" 

Every  repetition  of  "slaves"  appeals  to  the  Impelling 
Motive  of  Sentiments,  and  increases  their  indignation  and 
their  willingnese  to  fight. 

97 


98  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

Whenever  concentration  upon  the  original  assertion 
most  increases  the  power  of  the  Impelling  Motives,  Ke- 
statement  should  be  used  to  attain  Action. 

(2)  Entertainment  and  Restatement.  Restatement 
may  properly  be  used  for  Entertainment  when  the  greatest 
pleasure  will  result  from  the  listener  dwelling  on  the 
original  statement.  This  will  usually  be  the  case  when 
iteration  keeps  most  in  play  one  or  more  of  the  Factors 
of  Interestingness.  Thus,  Mark  Twain,  in  a  talk  on 
^'Woman"; 

"I  do  not  know  where  her  hair  (the  hair  of  the  woman 
of  fashion)  comes  from.  I  could  never  find  out.  That 
is,  her  other  hair,  her  public  hair,  her  Sunday  hair.  I  do 
not  mean  the  hair  she  goes  to  bed  with.  Why,  you  ought 
to  know  the  hair  I  mearu  It  is  that  thing  which  she  calls 
a  switch  and  which  resembles  a  switch  as  much  as  it  re- 
sembles a  brick  bat  or  a  shot  gun,  or  any  other  thing  you 
correct  people  with.  It's  that  thing  which  she  twists  and 
then  coils  round  and  round  her  head,  bee  hive  fashion, 
and  then  tucks  the  end  in  under  the  hive,  and  harpoons 
it  with  a  hair  pin." 

Here  the  more  the  iteration  the  greater  the  humor.  The 
Factors  used  are  the  Unusual  and  the  Uncertain. 

In  a  milder  way  Sir  Edwin  Arnold  affords  pleasure  to 
his  audience  by  restating  the  fact  that  he  "was  never  a 
fanatic  in  the  matter  of  copyright": 

"I  have  always  had  a  tenderness  for  those  buccaneers 
of  the  ocean  of  books  who,  in  nefarious  bottoms,  carried 
my  poetical  goods  far  and  wide,  without  any  charge  for 
freight.  Laurels,  in  my  opinion,  for  they  can  be  won,  are 
meant  to  be  worn  with  thankfulness  and  modesty,  not  to 


RESTATEMENT  99 

be  eaten  like  salad  or  boiled  like  cabbage  for  the  pot. 
And  when  some  of  my  comrades  have  said  impatiently 
about  their  more  thoughtful  works,  that  writers  must  live, 
I  have,  perhaps,  vexed  them  by  replying  that  an  author 
who  aspires  to  fame  and  an  independent  gratitude  be- 
stowed for  the  true  creative  service  to  mankind  should  be 
content  with  those  lofty  and  inestimable  rewards,  and  not 
demand  bread  and  butter  also  from  the  high  muses,  as  if 
they  were  German  waitresses  in  a  .coffee-house/' 

The  pleasure  here  arises  from  Restatement  through  the 
Unusual. 

The  amusement  in  the  following  is  due  to  Falstaff's 
iteration : 

"I  never  see  thy  face  but  I  think  upon  hell-fire,  and 
Dives  that  lived  in  purple;  for  there  he  is  in  his  robes, 
burning,  burning.  If  thou  wert  any  way  given  to  virtue, 
I  would  swear  by  thy  face;  my  oath  should  be,  'By  this 
fire,  that's  God's  angel:'  but  thou  art  altogether  given 
over;  and  wert  indeed,  but  for  the  light  in  thy  face,  the 
son  of  utter  darkness.  When  thou  rannest  up  Gadshill 
in  the  night  to  catch  my  horse,  if  I  did  not  think  thou 
hadst  been  an  ignis  fatuus  or  a  ball  of  wildfire,  there's  no 
purchase  in  money.  0,  thou  art  a  perpetual  triumph,  an 
everlasting  bonfire-light." 

— Shakespeare,  Henry  IV,  Pt.  1,  iii,  3. 

Whenever  the  pleasure  of  an  audience  can  most  be 
enhanced  by  keeping  the  parent  statement  steadily  before 
their  eyes,  that  is,  when  the  assertion  itself  offers  the 
greatest  opportunity  for  the  effective  use  of  the  Facton 


100  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

of  Interestingness,  the  speaker  ehould  use  Restatement  for 
Entertainment. 

(3)  Concurrent  and  Recurrent  Restatement.  Restate- 
ment may  be  either  Concurrent  or  Recurrent.  It  is  Con- 
current when  the  Restatements  immediately  follow  the 
assertion.  This  is  the  kind  we  have  thus  far  discussed. 
Restatement  is  Recurrent  when  all  or  part  of  the  re- 
assertion  comes  after  interjacent  matter.  This  latter  is 
exemplified  by  Demosthenes  in  his  speech  "On  the 
Crown." 

'^ut  Aeschines  declined  the  straightforward  and  just 
course,  avoided  all  proofs  of  guilt  at  the  time,  and  after 
this  long  interval  gets  up,  to  play  his  part  withal,  a  heap 
of  accusation,  ribaldry  and  scandal." 

And  Restating  it  a  little  later: 

"It  was  the  duty  of  a  good  citizen,  if  he  had  any  better 
plan,  to  disclose  it  at  the  time,  not  to  find  fault  now. 
.  .  .  Now,  as  I  said  before,  the  time  for  a  man  who 
regardeth  the  commonwealth,  and  for  honest  counsel,  was 
then." 

Again  Restating: 

"What  is  the  use  of  telling  us  now  what  we  should  have 
done?  Why,  being  in  the  city  and  present,  did  you  not 
make  your  proposals  then,  if  indeed  they  were  practicable, 
at  a  crisis  when  we  had  to  accept  not  what  we  liked,  but 
what  the  circumstances  allowed?" 

And  finally: 

"What  advantage  has  your  eloquence  been  to  your  coun- 
try? Now  do  you  speak  to  us  about  the  past?  As  if  a 
physician  should  visit  his  patients  and  not  order  or  pre- 
scribe anything  to  cure  the  disease,  but  on  the  death  of 


RESTATEMENT  101 

anyone,  when  the  last  ceremonies  were  performing,  should 
follow  him  to  the  grave  and  expound  how,  if  the  poor 
fellow  had  done  this  and  that  he  never  would  have  died! 
Idiot!    Do  you  speak  now?" 

By  this  method  Demosthenes  kept  his  point  vividly  be- 
fore the  judges  throughout  his  entire  speech. 

(4)  Restatement  as  a  Conchision.  Restatement  is  valu- 
able as  a  Conclusion.  In  a  lengthly  argument  it  enables 
the  speaker  to  rapidly  review  his  several  contentions  and 
drive  them  home  as  a  whole. 

(5)  Restatement  and  the  Paragraph.  Restatement  is 
also  valuable  as  a  factor  in  the  Paragraph.  Frequently 
the  last  sentence  of  the  Paragraph  should  be  a  Restate- 
ment of  the  sentence  containing  the  dominant  idea.  Thus 
Herbert  Spencer  (Education,  Chap.  I),  makes  the  state- 
ment, "That  next  after  direct  self-preservation  comes  in- 
direct self-preservation,  which  consists  in,  acquiring  the 
means  of  living,  none  will  question,"  and  concludes  the 
paragraph,  "it  follows  that  knowledge  needful  for  self- 
maintenance  has  stronger  claims  than  knowledge  needful 
for  family  welfare — is  second  in  value  to  none  save  knowl- 
edge needful  for  immediate  self-preservation."  Similarly 
we  find  Christ  saying,  "Take  no  thought  for  your  life 
what  we  shall  eat  or  what  ye  shall  drink,  nor  yet  of  your 
body  what  ye  shall  put  on,"  and  after  offering  the  reasons 
for  his  command,  concludes  with  the  Restatement,  "There- 
fore, take  no  thought  saying  *what  shall  we  eat?  or  what 
shall  we  drink  ?   or  wherewithal  shall  we  be  clothed  ?* " 

(6)  Restatement  as  Pure  Repetition.  While  Restate 
ment  is  usually  in  a  different  phraseology  from  the  asset 
tion  it  supports  it  may  sometimes  be  most  effective  as  s? 


103  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

literal  repetition.  In  such  cases  the  speaker  desires  con- 
centration on  the  very  form  of  the  assertion.  Thus,  Mark 
Antony,  in  his  speech  to  the  mob,  in  Julius  Caesar,  uses 
the  phrase  "Brutus  says  he  was  ambitious"  three  times, 
and  "Brutus  is  an  honorable  man"  four  times. 

(7)  Skill  in  Restatement  Demands  Judgment  and 
Practice.  Skill  in  the  use  of  Restatement  demands  judg- 
ment and  practice.  The  speaker  must  know  when  itera- 
tion is  needed  and  the  kind  most  effective.  A  correct 
understanding  of  the  distinctive  office  of  Restatement  will 
come  from  a  careful  study  of  the  preceding  paragraphs 
specifically  treating  of  its  place  and  power.  There  it  has 
been  shown  that  its  function  is  to  focus  the  attention  upon 
the  original  assertion  as  a  whole,  and  its  use,  therefore,  is 
wise,  whenever  such  concentration  most  helps  to  attain  the 
desired  End.  This  must  be  determined  by  a  careful  esti- 
mate of  the  average  intelligence  and  knowledge  of  the 
listener.  This  estimate  must  be  based,  necessarily,  on 
observation  and  experience.  What  is  commonly  read,  the 
subject  matter  and  phrasing  of  newspapers  and  magazines 
and  popular  books,  the  topics  ordinarily  discussed,  the 
phraseology  one  hears  in  business  and  social  intercourse — 
these  permit  of  a  generalization  that  will  serve  as  a  work- 
ing standard  by  which  to  test  intelligibility. 

(8)  Restatement  and  Reference  to  Experience.  Skill 
in  Restatement  demands  the  fullest  application  of  the 
Principle  of  Reference  to  Experience,  for  as  the  only  justi- 
fication for  Restatement  is  its  power  to  aid  the  speaker  in 
the  attainment  of  his  End,  and  as  it  has  been  shown  that 
the  speaker's  End  is  most  likely  to  be  attained  through 
Eeference  to  Experience,  it  follows  that  that  Restatement* 


RESTATEMENT  103 

is  most  effective  which  brings  the  original  assertion  most 
within  the  listener's  experience. 

(9)  Practice.  Practice  is  indispensable  to  efficiency  in 
Restatement.  The  speaker  should  select  assertions  thai 
might  demand  repetition  and  restate  them  in  the  degree 
he  deems  necessa^}^  To  this  end  he  should  imagine  a 
specific  audience  or  listener.  This  will  enable  him  to  fix 
a  definite  average  of  intelligence. 

(10)  Restatement  Increases  Vocabulary.  Faithful  prac- 
tice of  Restatement  increases  in  marked  degree  one's  work- 
ing vocabulary.  Words  that  have  been  stored  away  in  the 
recesses  of  the  memory  are  brought  into  active  use ;  others 
that  have  a  vague  significance  are  now  carefully  examined 
and  used  with  powerful  aptness,  and  in  this  way  is  attained 
an  excellent  command  of  language. 

(11)  Evil  of  Indiscriminate  Use.  It  is  hardly  neces- 
sary to  warn  against  an  indiscriminate  use  of  Restate- 
ment. Nothing  is  more  annoying  than  the  iteration  of  an 
idea  already  adequately  clear  and  vivid.  The  trained 
judgment  must  be  the  arbiter  as  to  when  and  when  not 
to  Restate,  and  in  what  degree. 


-Tv 


CHAPTER  XI. 

GENERAL   ILLUSTRATION. 

(1)  General  Illustration  is  that  form  of  support  that 
presents  to  the  listener  a  detail  or  details  of  the  idea  ex- 
pressed in  the  original  assertion.  It  shows  a  part  or  parts, 
a  group  or  groups,  included  in  the  statement  itself.  It 
does  not,  however,  individualize.  In  his  lecture,  *'Fare- 
well  Thoughts  on  America,''  F.  W.  Farrar  asserts  that 
there  are  "perils"  in  American  civilization,  and  supports 
it  thus: 

"It  would  be  false  and  idle  to  imply  that  you  have  no 
perils — that  there  are  no  rocks,  no  whirlpools  which  lie 
in  front  of  your  steam-driven  Ship  of  State.  It  is  hardly 
for  me,  it  is  not  for  any  stranger  to  dwell  on  these.  A 
stranger  does  not  know,  he  cannot  know  much,  if  any- 
thing, about  the  spoils  system;  about  bosses  and  bossism; 
about  the  danger  of  a  secularized  education;  about  the 
subtle  oppression  of  popular  opinion;  about  frauds,  and 
rings  and  municipal  corruption;  about  the  amazing 
ferocity,  the  untruthfulness  and  reckless  personality  and 
intrusiveness  of  the  baser  portion  of  your  press.  He 
reads,  indeed,  in  your  leading  journals,  of  evils  *calcu- 
lated  to  humiliate  and  discourage  those  v/ho  have  both 
pride  and  faith  in  republican  institutions';  of  political 

104 


'<^^' 


ILLUS 


GENERAL  ILLUSTRATION  105 


scandals  and  commercial  dishonors;  of  demagogjsm  in 
public  life;  of  reckless  financial  speculations;  of  a  lessen- 
ing sense  of  the  sacredness  of  marriage;  of  defalcations, 
malfeasance,  sinister  legislation,  bought  and  paid  for  by 
those  whom  it  benefits;  of  a  false  ideal  of  life  which  puts 
material  interest  above  the  spiritual,  and  makes  riches  the 
supreme  object  of  human  endeavor  and  an  absorbing  pas- 
sion for  paltry  emulations." 

This  is  General  Illustration.  The  term  "perils'*  is  re- 
solved into  some  of  its  parts  in  a  general  way,  avoiding 
individuality;  "bosses,"  but  no  particular  boss;  "dema- 
gogues," but  no  particular  demagogue;  "political  scan- 
dals," but  no  particular  political  scandal. 

(2)  The  Office  of  General  Illmtration.  The  effect  of 
General  Illustration  on  the  listener  is  to  focus  his  mind 
upon  what  the  original  assertion  includes.  It  indicates 
more  or  less  completely  its  sweep,  reach  or  content.  The 
distinctive  office,  then,  of  General  Illustration  is  to  show 
or  emphasize  the  assertion's  scope. 

(3)  Clearness  and  General  Illustration.  This  being  so, 
the  speaker  will  use  General  Illustration  to  attain  Clear- 
ness when  the  obscurity  is  due  to  a  failure  to  perceive  one 
or  more  details;  that  is,  when  the  necessary  Clearness  de- 
mands the  perception  of  parts  or  characteristics  which 
are  not  likely  to  be  recalled  by  the  listener  instantly,  or 
with  which  he  is  unfamiliar.  Thus,  a  clear  understanding 
of  the  phrase  "intellectual  culture"  implies  a  knowledge 
of  its  details.  The  speaker  may  feel  that  these  will  not 
be  instantly  perceived  and,  therefore,  justifiably  uses  Gen* 
eral  Illustration : 


106  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

"This  force  (intellectual  culture)  is  manifested  in  the 
concentration  of  the  attention,  in  accurate,  penetrating 
observation,  in  reducing  complex  subjects  to  their  ele- 
ments, in  diving  beneath  the  eSect  to  the  cause,  in  detect- 
ing the  more  subtle  differences  and  resemblances  of  things, 
in  reading  the  future  in  the  present,  and  especially  in 
rising  from  particular  facts  to  general  laws  or  universal 
truths."— W.  E.  Channing. 

Here  the  recital  of  details  makes  unmistakably  clear 
what  the  speaker  means.  General  Illustration,  therefore, 
should  be  used  for  Clearness  whenever  intelligibility  de- 
pends upon  the  perception  of  details  not  likely  to  be  seen — 
when  the  obscurity  lies  in  the  inability  to  see  the  asser- 
tion's scope. 

(4)  Impressiveness  and  Oeneral  IllustraUon.  Impres- 
fiiveness  has  need  of  General  Illustration  when  the  neces- 
Bary  emotional  association  can  be  attained  most  quickly 
by  reference  to  details.  Thus,  to  secure  Impressiveness 
for  the  assertion  that  "there  were  horrors  in  the  American 
Civil  War,"  it  is  necessary  that  the  listener  shall  instantly 
revive  such  a  series  of  emotional  details  of  the  war  as  will 
adequately  produce  the  desired  feeling,  and,  if  he  cannot 
at  once  do  this  the  speaker  must  do  it  for  him,  and  he 
may  continue: 

"You  can  never  forget,  while  life  lasts,  the  days  when, 
as  the  eye  glanced  over  the  daily  papers,  the  two  words 
'mortally  wounded'  struck  an  unutterable  chill  into  so 
many  hearts  of  mothers  and  wives ;  when  men,  sacrificing 
all,  locked  the  shops  and  chalked  up  'We  have  enlisted  for 
the  war' ;  when  the  red  stains  on  the  woodland  leaves  were 
not  only  from  the  maple's  conflagration;  when  your  land, 


GENERAL  ILLUSTRATION  107 

even  amid  her  anguish,  rejoiced  that  she  had  sons  with 
hearts  like  these.  In  those  days  God  ordained  for  you 
famine  and  fire  and  sword  and  lamentation.  The  blood 
of  the  gallant  and  good  flowed  like  a  river,  and  the  dear 
ones  at  home  hungered  for  news;  and  dread  memories 
were  left  for  years,  and  the  hearts  of  women  slowly  broke. 
It  was  not  only  gray-haired  fathers  who  sank  under  the 
bayonet  thrust,  and  men  who  came  home  crippled  for  the 
rest  of  life,  but  the  shots  which  pierced  the  breasts  of 
young  men  drenched  in  blood  a  picture  and  a  lock  of 
woman's  hair;  and  in  the  delirious  fever  of  their  wounds, 
bright  eyed,  gallant  boys  talked  of  their  mothers,  and 
babbled  of  the  green  fields  at  home." — F.  W.  Farrar. 

Here  the  imagination  of  the  listener  has  been  assisted 
by  the  recital  of  certain  characteristics  of  the  war  that 
come  into  the  listener's  emotional  experience,  and  thus 
result  in  a  vivid  conception. 

The  assertion  that  "Shakespeare  lived  all  lives,"  stand- 
ing alone,  arouses  little  emotion  in  the  average  listener. 
The  difficulty  lies  in  his  inability  to  call  up,  on  the  instant, 
ideas  or  details  or  pictures  that  produce  in  him  the  extent 
of  feeling  desired.  And  as  General  Illustration,  in  this 
instance,  permits  of  a  more  rapid  cumulation  of  emo- 
tional units  than  do  the  other  Forms  of  Support  it  is  the 
preferable  Form  to  use: 

"Shakespeare  lived  the  life  of  savage  men.  He  trod 
the  forest's  silent  depths,  and  in  the  desperate  game  of  life 
or  death  he  matched  his  thought  against  the  instinct  of 
the  beast.  He  knew  all  crimes  and  all  regrets,  all  virtues 
and  their  rich  rewards.  He  was  victim  and  victor,  pursuer 
and  pursued,  outcast  and  king.     He  heard  the  applause 


108  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

and  curses  of  the  world,  and  on  his  heart  had  fallen  all  the 
nights  and  noons  of  failure  and  success. 

"He  knew  the  outspoken  thoughts,  the  dumb  desires, 
the  wants  and  ways  of  beasts.  He  felt  the  crouching 
tiger's  thrill,  the  terror  of  the  ambushed  prey,  and,  with 
the  eagles,  he  had  shared  the  ecstasy  of  flight  and  poise 
and  swoop,  and  he  had  lain  with  siluggish  serpents  on  the 
barren  rocks,  uncoiling  slowly  in  the  heat  of  noon.  He 
sat  beneath  the  bo-tree's  contemplative  shade,  wrapped 
in  Buddha's  mighty  thought,  and  dreamed  all  dreams 
that  light,  the  alchemist,  had  wrought  from  dust  and  dew 
and  stored  within  the  slumberous  poppy's  subtle  blood. 
He  knelt  with  awe  and  dread  at  every  shrine.  He  of- 
fered every  sacrifice,  and  every  prayer;  felt  the  consola- 
tion and  the  shuddering  fear,  mocked  and  worshipped 
all  the  gods;  enjoyed  all  heavens  and  felt  the  pangs  of 
every  hell.  He  lived  all  lives,  and  through  his  blood  and 
brain  there  crept  the  shadow  and  the  chill  of  every  death; 
And  his  soul,  like  Mazeppa,  was  lashed  to  the  wild  horse 
of  every  fear  and  love  and  hate. 

"Shakespeare  was  an  intellectual  ocean,  whose  waves 
touched  all  the  shores  of  thought;  within  which  were  all 
the  tides  and  waves  of  destiny  and  will ;  over  which  swept 
all  the  storms  of  fate,  ambition  and  revenge;  upon  which 
fell  the  gloom  and  darkness  of  despair  and  death,  and  all 
the  sunlight  of  content  and  love,  and  within  which  was 
the  inverted  sky,  lit  with  the  eternal  stars — an  intellec- 
tual ocean — towards  which  all  rivers  ran,  and  from  which 
now  the  isles  and  continents  of  thought  receive  their  dew 
and  rain." — Robert  G.  Ingersoll. 


GENERAL  ILLUSTRATION  109 

The  thought  that  human  associations  are  richer  and 
eweeter  than  mythological  is  happily  amplified  by  this 
Form  of  Support : 

"Let  the  fountain  tell  me  of  the  flocks  that  have  drunk 
at  it;  of  the  village  girl  that  has  gathered  spring  flowers 
on  its  margin ;  tlie  traveler  that  has  slaked  his  thirst 
there  in  the  hot  noon,  and  blessed  its  waters;  the  school- 
boy that  has  pulled  tlie  nuts  from  the  hazels  that  hang 
over  it  as  it  leaps  and  sparkles  in  the  cool  basin;  let  it 
speak  of  youth  and  health  and  purity  and  gladness,  and 
I  care  not  for  the  naiad  that  poure  it  out.** — William  Cul- 
len  Bryant. 

Here,  to  attain  the  same  degree  of  emotional  associa- 
tion by  the  use  of  Specific  Instance,  Restatement  or  Tes- 
timony, would  require  longer  time  and  more  labor. 

(5)  General  Illustration  and  Futurity.  Sometimes  Gen- 
eral Illustration  is  the  best  method  of  making  Impressive 
assertions  in  respect  to  the  future.  Speaking  for  the 
Pilgrim  Fathers,  Webster,  by  this  form  of  support,  fore- 
casts American  triumphs : 

"If  God  prosper  us,  might  have  been  the  more  appro- 
priate language  of  our  forefathers  when  they  landed  upon 
this  rook, — 'If  God  prosper  us,  we  shall  here  begin  a  work 
that  shall  last  for  ages ;  we  shall  plant  here  a  new  society 
in  the  principles  of  the  fullest  liberty  and  the  purest  re- 
ligion; we  shall  subdue  this  wilderness  which  is  before 
us ;  we  shall  fill  the  region  of  the  great  continent,  almost 
from  pcle  to  pole,  with  civilization  and  Christianity;  the 
temples  of  the  true  God  shall  rise  where  now  ascends  the 
smoke  of  idolatrous  sacrifices;  fields  and  gardens,  the 
flowers  of  summer,  and  the  waving  and  golden  harvest 


110  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

of  Autumn  shall  spread  over  a  thousand  hills  and  stretch 
along  a  thousand  valleys  never  yet,  since  the  creation,  re- 
claimed to  the  use  of  civilized  man.  We  shall  whiten  this 
coast  with  the  canvas  of  a  prosperous  commerce ;  we  shall 
Gtud  the  long  and  winding  shore  with  a  hundred  cities ;  that 
which  we  sow  in  weakness  shall  be  raised  in  strength.*  *'— 
Daniel  Webster. 

For  Webster  to  have  been  specifically  concrete,  to  have 
said,  "We  shall  build  a  great  city  called  New  York,  with 
Trinity  Church,"  etc.,  would  have  restricted  the  listener's 
imagination,  and,  as  prophesying  the  uncertain,  would 
have  made  the  utterance  unnatural,  also  the  emotional 
association  would  be  lacking. 

(6)  General  Illtistration  and  Permanent  PopvXarity. 
As  a  rule,  General  Illustration  is  the  preferable  form  of 
support  where  the  speaker  wishes  for  his  utterance  perma- 
nent popularity.  It  avoids  dates,  names  and  places  that, 
in  time,  may  lose  their  significance  or  emotional  power. 
To  use  specific  reference  in  place  of  general,  in  the  fol- 
lowing, would  likely  destroy  its  intellegibility  in  a  few 
years : 

"Smite  this  ideal  element  (credit)  that  impenetrates 
the  land,  and  you  would  paralyze  the  prosperity  of  the 
country.  It  is  the  same  as  if  you  arrest  the  pitch  of 
waterfalls,  and  smother  the  breezes  that  ruffle  the  deep, 
and  wilt  the  fierce  energy  of  steam,  and  unstring  the  la- 
borer's arm,  and  quench  the  furnace  fires,  and  stop  the 
hum  of  wheels,  and  forbid  emigrants  to  seek  the  west,  and 
cities  to  rise  amid  the  silence  of  the  woods.  Shake  credit, 
and  there  is  an  earthquake  of  society." — J.  T.  Fields. 


GENERAL  ILLUSTEATION  HI 

(7)  The  most  valuable  of  the  Four  Forms  for  Impress- 
iveness  is  General  Illustration.  As  a  rule,  in  a  given 
space  of  time  General  Illustration  can  arouse  more  emo- 
tion than  can  the  other  forms.  This  arises  from  the 
fact  that  there  is  a  tendency  to  crowd  the  emotions  of 
several  specific  experiences  into  some  general  term.  Thus 
at  the  mention  of  the  word  "mother"  there  opens  to  the 
consciousness  a  hundred  channels  of  emotional  experience, 
and  a  cumulation  of  such  terms  with  their  myriad  con- 
centrated associations  must  necessarily  attain  a  great 
emotional  effect. 

(8)  Belief  and  General  Illustration.  Belief  calls  for 
General  Illustration  when  doubt  can  be  removed  most 
quickly  by  details,  that  is,  when  a  detail  or  details  of  the 
original  assertion  will  come  sufficiently  within  the  lis- 
tener's experience  to  be  accepted  by  him  as  proof  of  the 
whole.  Thus  to  secure  Belief  for  the  assertion  that  "they 
that  die  for  a  good  cause  are  redeemed  from  death,"  it 
is  only  necessary  to  recite  some  of  the  general  features 
included  in  "redeemed  from  death"  to  secure  approval,  as : 

"There  is  in  every  village,  and  in  every  neighborhood, 
a  glowing  pride  in  its  martyred  heroes;  tablets  preserve 
their  names;  pious  love  shall  renew  the  inscriptions  as 
time  and  the  unfeeling  elements  efface  them.  And  the 
national  festivals  shall  give  multitudes  of  precious  names 
to  the  orator's  lips.  Children  shall  grow  up  under  more 
sacred  inspirations,  whose  elder  brothers,  dying  nobly  for 
their  country,  left  a  name  that  honored  and  inspired  all 
who  bore  it.  .  .  .  Are  they  dead  that  yet  speak  louder 
than  we  can  speak,  and  a  more  universal  language?  Are 
they  dead  that  yet  act?     Are  they  dead  that  yet  moiC 


112  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

upon  society  and  inspire  the  people  with  nobler  motives 
and  more  heroic  patriotism  ?" — Henry  Ward  Beecher. 

In  this  instance  the  details  at  once  recall  concrete  in- 
stances in  the  experience  of  the  listener. 

Similarly  Belief  is  won  for  the  assertion  that  "cor- 
porations have  enabled  man  to  achieve  industrial  won- 
ders" by  a  partial  presentation  of  particulars : 

"There  is  hardly  an  invention,  a  discovery,  an  advance 
in  any  industrial  line,  that  has  not  been  brought  to 
triumph  by  corporations.  Corporations  have  given  us 
our  banks,  our  factories,  our  railroads,  our  colleges  and 
universities.  They  have  made  the  impossible  possible. 
They  have  tunneled  through  the  mightiest  natural  bar- 
riers and  sent  the  iron  horse  snorting  through  the  moun- 
tain's bowels.  Corporations  have  entered  the  blighting, 
trackless  deserts  of  the  west,  and  by  irrigation  turned  them 
into  fruitful  orange  groves.  Corporations  have  been  the 
mightiest  democrats,  the  mightiest  levelers,  the  world  has 
yet  produced.  They  have  brought  within  the  reach  of  all 
comforts  and  delicacies  that  one  time  graced  only  the 
homes  of  the  rich." — H.  L.  Winslow. 

Here  the  general  references  are  sufficiently  familiar  to 
cause  the  listener  to  accept  them  as  adequate  proof  of 
the  original  assertion. 

The  assertion  "For  all  the  higher  arts  of  construction 
some  acquaintance  with  mathematics  is  indispensable"  de- 
mands only  a  partial  perception  of  its  scope  to  win  ap- 
proval : 

"The  village  carpenter  who,  lacking  rational  instruction, 
lays  out  his  work  by  empirical  rules,  learnt  in  his  appren- 
ticeship, equally  with  the  builder  of  a  Britannia  bridge, 


GENERAL  1LLUSTRATI0^*  113 

makes  hourly  reference  to  the  laws  of  quantitative  rela- 
tions. The  surveyor,  on  whose  survey  the  land  is  pur- 
chased; the  architect,  in  designing  a  mansion  to  be  built 
on  it;  the  masons,  in  cutting  the  stones;  and  the  various 
artisans  who  put  up  the  fittings,  are  all  guided  by  geo- 
metrical tniths/' — Herbert  Spencer. 

General  Illustration,  then,  is  the  proper  form  of  sup- 
port with  which  to  secure  Belief  when  the  prei?entation  of 
details  most  quickly  secures  acceptance.  This  will  be 
when  doubt  is  due  to  the  inability  of  the  listener  to  in- 
stantly see  the  scope  of  the  assertion — to  call  up  that  part 
or  those  parts  of  it  the  perception  of  which  will  be  ac- 
cepted by  the  listener  as  a  verification  of  the  whole  asser- 
tion. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

GENERAL  ILLUSTRATION  ( Continued ). 

(1)  General  Illustration  and  Action.  General  Illustra- 
tion should  be  used  for  action  when  failure  to  do  the  thing 
desired  is  due  to  the  listener's  inability  to  feel  the  impell- 
ing power  in  the  details  or  content  of  the  assertion.  This 
situation  is  most  frequently  found  when  the  listener  be- 
lieves in  the  justice,  wisdom  or  advisability  of  the  pro- 
posed course,  but  fails  to  carry  his  belief  into  action.  Fre- 
quently we  find  desire  at  war  with  judgment,  as  when  one 
admits  honesty  is  the  right  course,  yet  acts  dishonestly. 
He  has  no  doubt,  but  he  does  not  do.  Thus,  in  Henry  the 
Fifth,  the  citizens  of  Harfleur  believe  harm  will  befall 
them  if  they  do  not  capitulate,  but  their  civic  pride  pre- 
vents them  from  seeing  the  consequences  with  vividness 
powerful  enough  to  make  them  act.  Hence  the  justifiable 
■"^e  of  General  Illustration : 

"If  I  begin  the  battery  once  again, 
I  will  not  leave  the  half  achieved  Harfleur 
Till  in  her  ashes  she  lie  buried. 
The  gates  of  mercy  shall  be  all  shut  up. 
And  the  flesh'd  soldier,  rough  and  hard  of  heart. 
In  liberty  of  bloody  hand  shall  range 
114 


GENERAL  ILLUSTRATION  115 

With  conscience  wide  as  hell,  mowing  like  grass 

Your  fresh-fair  virgins  and  your  flowering  infants. 

.     .     .     Therefore,  you  men  of  Harfleur, 

Take  pity  of  your  town  and  of  your  people, 

Whiles  yet  my  soldiers  are  in  my  command; 

If  not,  why,  in  a  moment  look  to  see 

The  blind  and  bloody  soldier  with  foul  hand 

Defile  the  locks  of  your  shrill-shrieking  daughters ; 

Your  fathers  taken  by  the  silver  beards, 

And  their  most  reverend  heads  dashed  to  the  walls, 

Your  naked  infants  spitted  upon  pikes. 

Whiles  the  mad  mothers  with  their  howls  confused 

Do  break  the  clouds,  as  did  the  wives  of  Jewry 

At  Herod's  bloody-hunting  slaughtermen. 

What  say  you  ?  will  you  yield,  and  this  avoid, 

Or,  guilty  in  defence,  be  thus  destroy'd  ?" 

— Shakespeare,  King  Henry  V,  3,3. 
It  is  not  surprising  that  this  vivid  picture,  appealing 
as  it  does  to  the  Motives  of  Self-Preservation,  Property 
and  Affections,  moves  the  citizens  to  open  their  gates. 

(2)  When  an  argument  has  produced  Belief  or  has 
gone  as  far  towards  that  end  as  is  practicable,  it  is  often 
effective  to  use  General  Illustration  for  the  final  appeal  to 
the  Motives,  and  thus  bring  the  whole  situation  in  a  vivid 
cumulative  review: 

"My  Lords,  I  have  submitted  to  you,  with  the  freedom 
and  truth  which  I  think  my  duty,  my  sentiments  on  your 
present  awful  situation.  I  have  laid  before  you  the  ruin 
of  your  power,  the  disgrace  of  your  reputation,  the  pollu- 
tion of  your  discipline,  the  contamination  of  your  morals, 
the  complication  of  calamities,  foreign  and  domestic,  that 


116  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

overwhelm  your  sinking  country.    Your  dearest  interests, 

your  own  liberties,  the  Constitution  itself,  totters  to  the 

foundation.     All  this  disgraceful  danger,  this  multitude 

of  misery,  is  the  monstrous  offspring  of  this  unnatural 

war." — Chatham. 

The  Motives  used  here  are  Self-Preservation,  Property 

and  Eeputation. 

Another  example  is  Webster's  peroration  in  his  Reply 
to  Hayne: 

"While  the  Union  lasts,  we  have  high,  exciting,  gratify- 
ing prospects  spread  out  before  us,  for  us  and  for  our 
children.  Beyond  that  I  seek  not  to  penetrate  the  veil. 
God  grant  that  on  my  vision  never  may  be  opened  what 
lies  behind !  When  my  eyes  shall  be  turned  to  behold  for 
the  last  time  the  sun  in  Heaven,  may  I  not  see  him  shining 
on  the  broken  and  dishonored  fragments  of  a  once  glorious 
union;  on  states  dissevered,  discordant,  belligerent;  on  a 
land  rent  with  civil  feuds,  or  drenched  it  may  be  in  fra- 
ternal blood!  Let  their  last  feeble  and  lingering  glance 
rather  behold  the  gorgeous  ensign  of  the  Republic  now 
known  and  honored  throughout  the  earth,  still  full  high 
advanced,  its  arms  and  trophies  streaming  in  their  original 
lustre,  not  a  stripe  erased  or  polluted,  nor  a  single  star 
obscured,  bearing  for  its  motto  no  such  miserable  inter- 
rogatory as  'what  is  all  this  worth  ?'  nor  those  other  words 
of  delusion  and  folly,  'liberty  first  and  Union  afterward?,* 
but  everywhere,  spread  all  over  in  characters  of  living 
light,  shining  on  all  its  ample  folds,  as  they  float  over 
the  sea  and  over  the  land  in  every  wind  under  the  whole 
heavens,  that  other  sentiment  of  every  true  American  heart 


GENERAL  ILLUSTRATION  117 

— Liberty  and  Union,  now  and  forever,  one  and  insep- 
arable."— Daniel  Webster. 

When  the  breaking  up  of  an  assertion  into  some  of  its 
particulars  most  works  upon  the  Impelling  Motives,  the 
speaker  should  use  General  Illustration  for  Action. 

(3)  Entertainment  and  General  Illustration.  Entertain- 
ment has  use  for  General  Illustration  when  pleasurable 
interest  is  most  heightened  by  the  use  ot  details,  when  the 
presentation  of  parts  most  makes  the  original  idea  Vital, 
Unusual,  Animate,  Concrete,  Antagonistic,  Uncertain  or 
Similar. 

The  assertion,  "a  pair  of  scissors  have  seen  varied  serv- 
ice," alone,  has  little  pleasurable  interest.  Tlie  amuse- 
ment lies  in  a  perception  of  its  humorous  scope: 

"A  pair  of  scissors  that  were  sharpened  when  they  were 
made  and  have  since  then  cut  acres  of  calico,  and  miles 
and  miles  of  paper,  and  great  stretches  of  cloth,  and 
snarls  and  coils  of  string,  and  furlongs  of  lampwick,  and 
have  snuffed  candles,  and  dug  corks  out  of  the  family  ink- 
bottle,  and  punched  holes  in  skate  straps,  and  trimmed  the 
family  nails,  and  have  ever  done  their  level  best,  at  the 
annual  struggle,  to  cut  stovepipe  length  in  two,  and  have 
successfully  opened  oyster  and  fruit  cans,  and  pried  up 
carpet  tacks," — R.  J.  Burdette. 

When  pleasurable  interestingness  is  dependent  upon  the 
perception,  in  whole  or  in  part,  of  the  scope  of  the  asser- 
tion. General  Illustration  should  be  used  for  Entertain- 
ment. 

(4)  General  Illustration  Demands  Knowledge  of  De- 
tails. As  the  business  of  General  Illustration  is  the  break- 
ing up  of  ideas,  skill  in  its  use  demands  a  thorough  knowl- 


113  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

edge  of  the  component  parts  of  things.  The  speaker  who 
would  successfully  use  it  must  see  things  not  only  syn- 
thetically but  analytically.  On  the  instant  there  must 
come  before  the  mind,  and  be  ready  at  the  tip  of  the 
tongue,  all  the  parts,  sections,  departments,  classes,  fea- 
tures, characteristics,  that  the  particular  need  demands. 
The  term  colors  must  at  once  call  up  violet,  scarlet,  crim- 
son, lilac,  green,  blue,  purple,  etc.  "Gems"  must  spread 
before  the  mental  eye  emeralds,  sapphires,  diamonds, 
rubies,  pearls;  "war"  must  instantly  resolve  itself  into 
guns,  drums,  wounds  and  a  hundred  other  details.  Every 
idea  of  the  speaker  inclusive  in  its  scope  should  be  known 
so  clearly  and  intimately  that  all  of  its  parts  are  ready 
for  instant  use. 

(5)  Readiness  Aided  by  Association  of  Ideas.  This 
readiness  is  helped  by  the  use  of  the  law  of  association  of 
ideas.  The  details  of  an  idea  will  be  more  quickly  fixed 
in  the  mind  and  will  more  readily  present  themselves  by 
acquiring  them  (a)  in  the  order  of  their  nearness  in  time 
and  place;  (b)  in  the  order  of  their  importance,  (c)  or 
in  respect  to  cause  and  effect.  Thus — nearness  in  time — 
ancient,  medieval,  modern;  past,  present,  future;  order 
of  importance  —  spiritual,  moral,  intellectual,  physical; 
cause  and  effect — storm,  flood,  damage.  Choose  the  asso- 
ciation that  comes  easiest. 

(6)  Practice.  Constant  practice  is  another  requisite  to 
efficiency  in  the  use  of  General  Illustration.  One  or  more 
inclusive  assertions  should  be  worked  out  every  day. 
Every  opportune  occasion  should  be  used,  as  in  discussions 
in  the  home  and  social  circles.  ''He  is  a  great  lawyer." 
Work  out  the  attributes  of  "great  lawyer" ;  "he  is  a  great 


GENERAL  ILLUSTRATION  119 

bHsiness  man" — analyze  ^'business  man,"  and  so  on  with 
the  various  terms  and  phrases  that  include  details,  attri- 
butes, parts.  This  process  will  open  up  the  whole  field 
of  knowledge,  develop  accuracy  of  conception,  increase  the 
analytical,  imaginative  and  reasoning  powers,  and  ensure 
a  splendid  extemporaneous  skill. 

(7)  Realize  the  Need  of  General  Illustration.  A  further 
aid  to  efficiency  in  General  Illustration  is  a  vivid  percep- 
tion of  its  need.  By  experiment  prove  how  an  assertion 
is  made  effective  by  a  happy  presentation  of  some  of  its 
parts.  Eead  the  master  speakers  and  writers,  and  note 
how  many  of  their  most  effective  passages  have  been  Gen- 
eral Illustrations.  Eealize  that  progress  is  retarded  more 
by  inaccurate  and  incomplete  conceptions  of  things  than 
by  all  other  causes  combined;  that  failure  to  see  clearly 
what  is  included  and  what  excluded  in  an  assertion  is  the 
source  of  the  greater  number  of  misunderstandings,  dif- 
ferences and  dissensions  in  the  realms  of  literature,  eco- 
nomics and  politics. 

(8)  Reference  to  Experience  Governs  General  Illustra- 
tion To  be  most  effective  General  Illustration  must  be 
governed  by  the  Principle  of  Reference  to  Experience.  The 
more  the  details  come  vividly  into  the  life  of  the  listener, 
the  more  likely  will  the  speaker's  purpose  be  achieved. 
The  following  illustration  shows  an  excellent  appreciation 
of  this  rule : 

"How  perfectly  replete  is  God's  mind  with  all  the  laws 
and  types  of  beauty.  .  .  The  stately  grace  and  maj- 
esty of  the  earth — its  woods  and  plains,  its  streams  and 
sea^,  the  sunshine  flashing  over  all,  the  sunsets  gorgeous 
in  their  pomp  of  pillared  amethyst,  opal,  gold.     He  pours 


IgO  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

the  beauty  of  the  moonlight,  even  upon  a  resting  world, 
weird  and  fantastic,  yet  lovely  as  a  dream.  He  spreads 
the  infinite  canopy  of  the  night,  and  touches  it  everj^here 
with  dots  of  splendor.  He  makes  each  season  a  moving 
panorama  of  sights  and  sounds,  of  brilliant  gleams  or  fra- 
grant odors,  full,  constantly,  of  beauty  to  him  who  studies 
if — Richard  Storrs. 

Here  every  reference  comes  intimately  into  our  pleas- 
urable life  and  wins  approval  for  the  original  assertion. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

SPECIFIC  INSTANCE. 

(1)  Specific  Instance  presents  the  actual.  Its  concern 
is  with  dates,  times,  places,  names,  incidents.  It  differs 
from  General  Illustration  in  that  it  is  individual,  abso- 
lute, precise.  General  Illustration,  we  have  seen,  supports 
the  statement  "Greece  had  great  men"  by  saying  "She  had 
orators,  philosophers,  poets."  Specific  Instance  supports 
the  same  statement  by  saying  "Greece  had  Demosthenes, 
.rEschines,  Plato,  Aristotle,  Sophocles,  Homer."  The  de- 
tail in  the  one  case  is  general,  in  the  other  specific. 

(2)  Office  of  Specific  Instance.  The  effect  of  Specific 
Instance  upon  the  listener  is  that  of  actuality.  He  sees 
before  him  something  real,  something  existing  in  fact, 
something  individualized,  which  he  can  examine,  verify 
It  appeals  to  him  as  the  essence  of  frankness — a  willing- 
ness to  take  the  listener  to  the  very  source  of  the  assertion, 
and  see  for  himself  its  reality.  Specific  Instance,  there- 
fore, should  be  used  as  support  whenever  the  assertion 
demands  actuality,  whenever  to  see,  to  feel,  to  do,  to  enjoy, 
in  any  degree  depends  on  the  perception  of  a  specific  thing 
or  things. 

(3)  Clearness  and  Specific  Instance.  Clearness  demands 
Specific  Instance  when  the  obscurity  can  be  removed  most 

121 


132  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

quickly  by  the  perception  of  some  concrete  thing  or  things 
impUed  in  the  assertion.  Thus  the  obscurity  in  the  asser- 
tion that  "a  metaphor  is  a  comparison  implied  in  the  lan- 
guage used"  will  most  likely  be  due  not  to  ignorance  of 
the  meaning  of  the  terms  "comparison,"  "implied,"  but 
to  inability  to  make  the  terms  bring  before  the  mind  the 
concrete  thing.  Therefore,  the  proper  form  of  support  is 
Specific  Instance — "A  metaphor  is  a  comparison  implied 
in  the  language  used,  as :  'he  bridles  his  anger' ;  *he  was 
a  lion  in  combat.'  " 

In  the  statement  "there  are  occasions  in  life  in  which 
a  great  mind  lives  years  of  rapt  enjoyment  in  a  moment," 
the  lack  of  clearness  will  probably  lie  in  the  listener's  in- 
ability to  individualize  the  thought,  and  warrants  support 
by  Specific  Instance : 

"I  can  fancy  the  emotions  of  Galileo  when,  first  raising 
the  newly  constructed  telescope  to  the  heavens,  he  saw 
fulfilled  the  great  prophecy  of  Copernicus,  and  beheld  the 
planet  Venus,  crescent  like  the  moon.  It  was  such  an- 
other moment  as  that  when  the  immortal  printers  of  Metz 
and  Strasbourg  received  the  first  copy  of  the  Bible  into 
their  hands — the  work  of  their  divine  art ;  like  that,  when 
Columbus,  through  the  gray  dawn  of  the  12th  of  October, 
1492,  beheld  the  shores  of  San  Salvador;  like  that  when 
the  law  of  gravitation  first  revealed  itself  to  the  intellect 
of  Newton;  like  that  when  Franklin  saw,  by  the  stiffen- 
ing fibres  of  the  hempen  cord  of  his  kite,  that  he  held  the 
lightning  within  his  grasp ;  like  that  when  Leverriere  re- 
ceived back  from  Berlin  the  tidings  that  the  predicted 
planet  was  found." — Edward  Everett. 


SPECIFIC  INSTANCE  123 

Clearness  has  use  for  Specific  Instance,  then,  when  diffi- 
ciilty  of  comprehension  is  due  to  inability  to  see  the  con- 
crete thing  or  things  implied  in  the  assertion. 

(4)  Imprcssiveness  and  Specific  Instance.  Impressive- 
ness  finds  use  for  Specific  Instance  when  in  a  given  time 
reference  to  actuality  brings  the  assertion  more  vividly 
into  the  listener's  emotional  experience  than  does  reference 
to  other  forms  of  support.  This  will  be  when  the  assertion 
implies  the  concrete  and  when  around  this  concrete  there 
has  grown  up  a  deep  emotional  association. 

An  excellent  example  of  this  is  the  assertion  that  "Patri- 
otism has  its  altars  in  every  clime,  its  worship  and  fes- 
tivals" : 

"On  the  heathered  hills  of  Scotland  the  sword  of  Wal- 
lace is  yet  a  bright  tradition.  The  genius  of  France,  in 
the  brilliant  literature  of  the  day,  pays  its  homage  to  the 
piety  and  heroism  of  the  Young  Maid  of  Orleans.  In 
her  new  senate  hall,  England  bids  her  sculptor  place  among 
the  effigies  of  her  greatest  sons  the  images  of  Hampden 
and  of  Russell.  In  the  gay  and  graceful  capital  of  Bel- 
gium the  daring  hand  of  Geefs  has  reared  a  monument  full 
of  glorious  meaning  to  the  three  hundred  martyrs  of  the 
Revolution.  By  the  soft,  blue  waters  of  Lake  Lucerne 
stands  the  Chapel  of  William  Tell.  On  the  anniversary 
of  his  revolt  and  victory,  across  these  waters,  as  they  glit- 
ter in  the  July  sun,  skim  the  light  boats  of  the  allied 
Cantons;  from  the  prows  hang  the  banners  of  the  Repub- 
lic, and,  as  they  near  the  sacred  spot,  the  daughters  of 
Lucerne  chant  the  hymns  of  their  old  poetic  land.  Then 
bursts  forth  the  glad  Te  Deum,  and  Heaven  again  hears 
the  voice  of  that  wild  chivalry  of  the  mountains  which,  five 


134  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

centuries  since,  pierced  the  white  eagle  of  Vienna  and 
Qang  it  bleeding  on  the  rocks  of  Uri." — J.  F.  Meagher. 

Here  the  concrete  possesses  deep  emotional  power,  the 
raferences  arousing  some  of  our  most  vivid  feelings. 

The  statement  that  the  Revolutionary  War  rapidly 
found  its  way  through  the  American  Colonies,  is  made 
Impressive  by  the  following: 

"It  spread  over  the  bays  that  received  the  Saco  and 
Penobscot;  its  loud  reveille  broke  the  rest  of  the  trappers 
of  New  Hampshire,  and,  ringing  like  bugle  notes  from 
peak  to  peak,  overleapt  the  Green  Mountains,  swept  on- 
ward to  Montreal,  and  descended  the  ocean  river  till  the 
responses  were  echoed  from  the  cliffs  at  Quebec.  The  hills 
along  the  Hudson  told  to  one  another  the  tale.  As  the 
summons  hurried  to  the  South,  it  was  one  day  at  New 
York,  one  more  at  Philadelphia,  the  next  it  lighted  a 
watch  fire  at  Baltimore,  then  it  waked  an  answer  at  An- 
napolis. .  .  .  'For  God's  sake,  forward  it  by  night 
and  day,'  wrote  Cornelius  Harnett,  by  the  express  which 
sped  for  Brunswick.  Patriots  of  South  Carolina  caught 
up  its  tones  at  the  border  and  dispatched  it  to  Charleston, 
and,  through  pines  and  palmettos  and  moss-clad  live  oaks, 
farther  to  the  South,  till  it  resounded  among  the  New 
England  settlements  beyond  the  Savannah.  .  .  .  With 
one  heart  the  continent  cried  'Liberty  or  death.' " — George 
Bancroft. 

When,  in  the  speaker's  judgment,  the  lack  of  Impress- 
iveness  is  due  to  failure  to  perceive  the  actual,  when  refer- 
ence to  the  concrete  will  most  quickly  stir  the  desired  emo- 
tion, he  should  use  Specific  Instance. 


SPECTPIC  INSTANCE  126 

(5)  Belief  and  Specific  Instance.  The  epeaker  can  prop- 
erly use  Specific  Instance  to  secure  Belief  when  the  doubt 
is  due  to  failure  to  distinctly  see  one  or  more  of  the  precise 
facts  included  in  the  assertion.  As  Belief  is  most  difficult 
to  attain,  the  speaker  must  realize  vividly  that  its  funda- 
mental is  actual  experience,  that  seeing  is  believing.  As 
a  rule,  the  listener,  through  his  imagination,  must  be 
brought  face  to  face  with  a  sample,  as  it  were,  of  the  thing 
or  things  embraced  in  the  assertion.  Before  the  listener 
will  believe  the  assertion  that  "history  is  replete  with  pre- 
d  ctions  which  were  once  the  hue  of  destiny,  but  which 
failed  of  fulfillment  because  those  who  uttered  them  saw 
too  small  an  arc  of  the  circle  of  events"  he  will  insist  on 
bringing  before  his  mind  actual  instances,  and  if  he  can- 
not at  once  recall  these,  he  will  still  doubt.  To  avoid  this, 
therefore,  the  speaker  aids  his  recollection  by  at  once  fol- 
lowing up  his  assertion  with  adequate  instances : 

**^Vhen  Pharaoh  pursued  the  fleeing  Israelites  to  the 
edge  of  the  Red  Sea  he  was  confident  that  their  bondage 
would  be  renewed  and  that  they  would  again  make  bricks 
without  straw,  but  destiny  was  not  revealed  until  Moses 
and  his  followers  reached  the  further  shore  drj'  shod  and 
the  waves  rolled  over  the  horses  and  chariots  of  the  Egyp- 
tians. When  Belshazzar,  on  the  last  night  of  his  reign, 
led  his  thousand  lords  into  the  Babylonian  banquet  hall 
and  sat  down  to  a  table  glittering  with  vessels  of  silver 
and  gold,  he  felt  sure  of  his  kingdom  for  many  years  to 
come,  but  destiny  was  not  revealed  until  the  hand  wrote 
upon  the  wall  those  awe-inspiring  words,  *Mene,  Mene, 
Tekel  TJpharsin.'  When  Abderrahman  swept  northward 
with  his  conquering  hosts  his  imagination  saw  the  creBcent 


126  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

triumphant  throughout  the  world,  but  destiny  was  not  re- 
vealed until  Charles  Martel  raised  the  cross  above  the  bat- 
tlefield of  Tours  and  saved  Europe  from  the  sword  of 
Mohammedanism.  When  Napoleon  emerged  victorious 
from.  Marengo,  from  Ulm  and  from  Austerlitz,  he  thought 
himself  the  child  of  destiny,  but  destiny  was  not  revealed 
until  Blucher's  forces  had  joined  the  army  of  Wellington 
and  the  vanquished  Corsican  began  his  melancholy  march 
toward  St.  Helena.  When  the  redcoats  of  George  the 
Third  routed  the  New  Englanders  at  Lexington  and 
Bunker  Hill  there  arose  before  the  British  sovereign 
visions  of  colonies  taxed  without  representation  and 
drained  of  their  wealth  by  foreign-made  laws,  but  des- 
tiny was  not  revealed  until  the  surrender  of  Cornwallis 
completed  the  work  at  Independence  Hall  and  ushered  into 
existence  a  government  deriving  its  just  powers  from  the 
consent  of  the  governed." — William  Jennings  Bryan. 

Here  the  listener  has  brought  before  him  the  actualities 
he  desired. 

Again,  doubt  of  the  statement  that  England  has  done 
much  for  political  liberty  will  be  due  to  failure  to  recall 
the  concrete  and  is  therefore  properly  amplified  by  a  re- 
cital of  actual  instances. 

"Not  in  vain  had  her  (England's)  brave  barons  extorted 
Magna  Charta  from  King  John.  Not  in  vain  had  her 
Simon  De  Montford  summoned  the  knights  and  burgesses, 
and  laid  the  foundations  of  a  Parliament  and  a  House  of 
Commons.  Not  in  vain  had  her  noble  Sir  John  Eliot  died, 
as  a  martyr  of  free  speech,  in  the  Tower.  Not  in  vain 
had  her  heroic  Hampden  resisted  ship  money  and  died  on 
the  battlefield.    Not  in  vain,  for  us,  certainly,  the  great 


SPECIFIC  INSTANCE  127 

examples  and  the  great  warnings  of  Cromwell  and  the 
Commonwealth  or  those  sadder  ones  of  Sidney  and  Rus- 
Bell,  or  that  later  and  more  glorious  one  still  of  William 
of  Orange."— E.  C.  Winthrop. 

Whenever  the  speaker  feels  that  Belief  is  dependent 
upon  actuality,  that  the  failure  to  give  credence  is  due  to 
the  inability  to  see  precise  data,  he  should  use  Specifio 
Instance. 


CHAPTEE  XIV. 
SPECIFIC  INSTANCE  (continued). 

(1)  Action  and  Specific  Instance.  Action  has  use  for 
Specific  Instance  when  definite  reference  to  actualities  will 
most  quickly  show  that  the  action  sought  favorably  affects 
the  listener's  interests.  This  will  be  when  the  actualities 
are  the  listener's  most  vivid  experiences  in  respect  to  the 
thing  desired. 

In  the  following  the  action  is  made  desirable  through 
specific  proof  that  the  use  of  force  favorably  affects  one 
of  the  listener's  sentiments — love  of  liberty: 

"Force  compelled  the  signature  of  unvsdlling  royalty  to 
the  great  Magna  Charter;  force  put  life  into  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence  and  made  effective  the  Emancipation 
Proclamation;  force  waved  the  flag  of  revolution  over 
Bunker  Hill  and  marked  the  snows  of  Valley  Forge  with 
blood-stained  feet;  force  held  the  broken  line  of  Shiloh, 
climbed  the  flame-swept  hill  at  Chattanooga,  and  stormed 
the  clouds  on  Lookout  Heights;  force  marched  with 
Sherman  to  the  sea,  rode  with  Sheridan  in  the  valley  of 
the  Shenandoahj  and  gave  Grant  victory  at  Appomattox; 
force  saved  the  Union,  kept  the  stars  in  the  flag,  and  made 
"niggers"  men.  The  time  for  Grod's  force  has  come  again." 
— John  M.  Thurston. 

128 


SPECIFIC    INSTANCE  129 

Caution  in  diagnosis  and  prognosis  is  made  indispen- 
sable to  the  physician  by  showing  specifically  that  such 
course  favorably  affects  his  Self-Preservation,  Reputation 
and  Power: 

"I  saw  Velpeau  tie  one  of  the  carotid  arteries  for  a 
supposed  aneurism,  which  was  only  a  little  harmless  tumor, 
and  kill  his  patient.  Mr.  Dease,  of  Dublin,  was  more  for- 
tunate in  a  case  which  he  boldly  declared  an  abscess,  while 
others  thought  it  an  aneurism.  He  thrust  a  lancet  into 
it  and  proved  himself  in  the  right.  Soon  after,  he  made 
a  similar  diagnosis.  He  tlirust  in  his  lancet  as  before, 
and  out  gushed  the  patient's  blood,  and  his  life  with  it. 
The  next  morning  Mr.  Dease  was  found  dead  and  floating 
in  his  own  blood.  He  had  divided  the  femoral  artery. 
.  .  .  Jabez  MusgTove  was  shot  with  a  bullet  that  went 
in  at  his  ear  and  came  out  at  his  eye  on  the  other  side. 
A  couple  of  bullets  went  through  his  body  also.  Jabez 
got  well,  however,  and  lived  many  years.  Per  contra, 
Colonel  Rossiter,  cracking  a  plum-stone  with  his  teeth, 
broke  a  tooth  and  lost  his  life." — :01iver  Wendell  Holmes. 

Whenever  precise  data  most  quickly  comes  into  listener's 
experience  as  making  the  end  sought  desirable — most  in- 
fluences the  Impelling  Motives — the  speaker  should  use 
Specific  Instance  for  Action. 

(2)  Eniertainmcnt  and  Specific  Instance.  Wlien 
Entertainment  is  the  End,  Specific  Instance  should  be 
used  when  the  pleasure  is  most  heightened  by  reference  to 
actuality,  when  the  mention  of  things  existing  in  fact 
makes  the  thought  most  pleasurably  interesting.  This  will 
be  when  specific  data  most  heightens  one  or  more  of  the 
Seven  Factors  of  Tnterestingness — when  instances  mosi 
make  tlie  assertion  Vital,  Unusual,  Uncertain,   Simiia., 


130  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

Antagonistic,  Animate  or  Concrete.  Thus  Joseph  H. 
Choate,  in  an  after-dinner  speech  at  Harvard,  adds  to  the 
humor  of  his  assertion,  ^'I  am  truly  horrified  on  taking 
up  one  of  these  annual  catalogues  to  see  the  tests  that  are 
applied  to  the  modern  mind,"  by  quoting  a  Specific 
Instance : 

"Explain  the  Paralogism  of  Rational  Psychology,  the 
Antinomies  of  Rational  Cosmology  (proving  the  thesis  and 
antithesis  of  one  of  them,  as  an  example) ;  and  the  onto- 
logical,  cosmological,  and  physio-theological  proofs  of  the 
Ideal  of  Pure  Reason  or  Idea  of  God,  together  with  Kant's 
objections  to  each  of  these  three  modes  of  proof." 

Here  amusement  is  created  through  the  Unusual,     - 

(3)  Reference  to  Experience  Governs  Specific  Instance. 
In  determining  the  relative  value  of  Specific  Instances, 
the  governing  principle  is  Reference  \o  Experience.  That 
Specific  Instance  is  most  valuable  which  brings  the  speak- 
er's idea  into  the  listener's  life  most  vividly.  "America 
has  had  great  patriots"  would  be  supported  more  effect- 
ively by  the  mention  of  Washington  and  Lincoln  than  of 
Gouvemeur  Morris  and  Nathan  Hale.  All  were  patriots, 
but  Washington  and  Lincoln  come  more  vividly  into  the 
average  life. 

(4)  Attaining  Proficiency  in  Specific  Instance.  To 
become  proficient  in  Specific  Instance,  the  speaker  should 
first  realize  its  power — that  it  is  the  greatest  of  all  factors 
in  securing  Belief.  It  has  won  millions  to  religion, 
achieved  success  in  law  and  politics,  has  been  the  most 
powerful  weapon  of  the  reformer,  and  an  inestimable  aid 
to  the  men  of  science.  It  has  "made  history  and  changed 
the  course  of  empires."     It  was  the  victorious  factor  in 


SPECIFIC  INSTANCE  131 

the  speech  of  Demosthenes  "On  the  Crown,"  and  in 
modern  times  it  was  its  splendid  use  by  Charles  Darwin 
in  his  "Origin  of  Species"  that  impressed  upon  the  world 
the  theory  of  evolution.  Every  day  its  use  wins  cases  in 
court,  makes  sales  in  business  and  moulds  society.  In  its 
last  analysis,  progress,  social  and  industrial,  is  a  matter 
of  Specific  Instance. 

(5)  Acquisition  of  Specific  Data.  Realizing  its  need, 
the  speaker  must  focus  his  mind  for  useful  specific  data, 
data  that  he  believes  will  help  him  to  clarify,  enforce, 
prove  his  ideas.  Eyes  and  ears  should  ever  be  alert  for 
facts.  Happenings  of  the  day — things  done — things  seen 
— should  be  tested  with  reference  to  their  illustrative  value. 
Books,  magazines,  newspapers,  should  be  a  fruitful  source 
of  specific  material.  The  question  to  be  asked  is:  "What 
point  or  points,  what  idea  of  mine,  what  truth  does  this 
fact  or  anecdote  illustrate  or  go  to  prove?"  This  deter- 
mined, the  speaker  should  then  find  opportunities  to  tell 
the  example  in  connection  with  the  point  it  illustrates, 
and  do  so  at  least  three  different  times.  If  opportunities 
do  not  present  themselves,  make  them.  This  process  will 
fix  the  illustration  in  mind  permanently  and  usefully.  If 
our  reading  brings  the  following  item  before  us,  we  ask 
ourselves  what  it  illustrates: 

"Abraham  Lincoln  had  learned  at  school  only  the  three 
Rs,  and  those  very  incompletely ;  President  Garfield 
worked  with  a  boatman  when  only  ten  years  old ;  President 
Jackson  was  a  saddler,  and  never  spelled  correctly;  Presi- 
dent Benjamin  Harrison  started  life  as  a  farmer;  and 
President  Andrew  Johnson,  a  former  tailor,  visited  no 
school,  and  learned  reading  only  from  his  wife.     George 


132  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

Peaboct/  jstarted  work  when  only  eleven  years  old ;  the  late 
Sir  Edward  Harland  was  apprenticed  at  the  age  of  fifteen 
years;  Andrew  Carnegie  began  his  commercial  career 
when  twelve  years  old,  as  a  factory  hand;  Josiah  Wedge- 
wood  started  work  when  only  eleven  years  old ;  Arkwright, 
the  father  of  our  cotton  industry,  was  never  at  school; 
Edison  was  engaged  in  selling  papers  when  twelve  years 
of  age,  and  Sir  Hiram  Maxim  was  with  a  carriage  builder 
when  fourteen;  'Commodore'  Cornelius  Vanderbilt,  the 
railway  king,  who  left  more  than  a  hundred  million  dol- 
lars., started  as  a  ferryman  at  a  tender  age;  the  founder 
of  the  wealth  of  the  Astors  wan  a  butcher's  boy;  Baron 
Amsel  Mayer  von  Rothschild,  a  peddler;  Alfred  Krupp,  a 
smith;  John  Rockefeller,  head  of  the  Standard  Oil  Trust, 
a  clerk." 

This  excerpt  illustrates  the  statement  (a)  many  able 
men  have  been  self-taught,  or  (b)  lack  of  college  training 
does  not  necessarily  debar  success,  or  (c)  self-made  men 
are  found  in  nearly  all  lines  of  endeavor.  Always  the 
speaker  must  be  alert  for  illustrative  matter,  and  must 
use  the  foregoing  or  some  other  equally  effective  method 
of  making  it  practicable. 

(6)  Habitually  Use  Specific  Instance.  Power  in  Spe- 
cific Instance  is  further  increased  by  its  habitual  use. 
Whenever  legitimate  opportunity  offers,  in  business  or 
social  life,  one  should  support  his  assertions  by  Specific 
Instance.  If  remarking  that  a  meat  diet  is  not  necessary 
to  health,  he  will  follow  it  up  with  instances  from  his 
experience  and  reading.  He  will  tell  (if  aware  of  these 
facts)  that  over  four  hundred  millions  of  people  in  India, 
China  and  Japan  are  strong  and  long-lived  who  never 


SPECIFIC  INSTANCE  133 

taste  flesh ;  that  the  Scotch  Highlanders  live  almost  en- 
tirely on  vegetables,  also  the  native  Irish ;  that  Pythagoras, 
Plato,  Seneca  and  Slielley  were  vegetarians,  as  were 
Franklin,  Byron,  and  as  is  Tolstoi.  The  speaker  should 
never  let  pass  a  legitimate  opportunity  to  use  the  Specific. 


CHAPTEE  XV. 

TESTIMONY. 

(1)  Testimony  is  personal  attestation.  It  aims  to  stand 
as  a  duly  commissioned  proxy  telling  the  audience  what 
they  themselves  would  know  had  they  the  time  and  oppor- 
tunity for  investigation.  Its  distinguishing  characteristic 
is  that  it  is  the  data  or  opinion  of  some  one  other  than 
the  speaker. 

(2)  Effect  and  Office  of  Testimony.  The  effect  of  Tes- 
timony upon  the  listener  is  corroboration.  It  brings  be- 
fore the  audience  another  speaker,  who  says,  "I  come  before 
you  to  reaffirm  or  make  clear  or  more  emphatic  what  the 
speaker  says.  He  presents  to  you  not  only  his  view,  but 
mine.  There  are  two  of  us."  The  speaker,  therefore, 
needs  Testimony  as  support  when  the  attainment  of  his 
End  will  be  best  secured  by  corroboration,  that  is,  when 
he  deems  his  own  support  inadequate  or  not  as  effective 
as  that  of  others.  Testimony  will  be  stronger  than  his 
own  support  when  the  listener  looks  upon  the  person  or 
work  quoted  as  more  authoritative  than  the  speaker,  as, 
for  example,  Christ  in  the  eye  of  Christians,  Karl 
Marx  in  the  eye  of  Socialists,  The  Century  Dictionary 
with  American  scholars,  the  Stateman's  Year  Book  with 
legislators.    Testimony,  also,  is  desirable  when  it  will  come 

134 


TESTIMONY  135 

more  closely  into  the  listener's  experience  than  the  speak- 
er's own  words. 

An  excellent  example  of  the  use  of  Testimony  is  the 
following : 

"The  Gorernment  of  England  expressly  intended  that 
the  Boers  should  have  independence  in  local  affairs.  Lord 
Derby,  who  conducted  tlie  negotiations  for  England,  says, 
'Your  (tlie  Boer)  government  will  be  left  free  to  govern 
the  country  without  interference.'  Mr.  W.  H.  Smith. 
British  Leader  in  the  House  of  Commons,  stated,  Feb.  25, 
1890,  *It  is  a  cardinal  principle  of  the  convention  of  1884 
that  the  internal  government  and  legislation  of  the  South 
African  Eepublic  shall  not  be  interfered  with.'  And  Mr. 
Balfour  said,  on  Jan.  15,  1896,  *The  Transvaal  is  a  free 
and  independent  government  as  regards  internal  affairs.' 
Lord  Salisbury  says,  Jan.  31,  1896,  'The  Boers  had  abso- 
lute control  over  their  own  internal  affairs.'  And  Mr. 
Chamberlain,  May  8,  1896,  says,  'We  do  not  claim  and 
never  have  claimed  the  right  to  interfere  in  the  internal 
affairs  of  the  Transvaal.  The  rights  of  our  action  under 
the  convention  are  limited  to  the  offering  of  friendly  coun- 
sel, in  the  rejection  of  which,  if  it  is  not  accepted,  we 
must  be  quite  willing  to  acquiesce.' " — Mabel  B.  Madden. 

Here  the  selection  of  the  Testimony  shows  excellent 
judgment.  Every  person  quoted  stood  high  as  authority 
in  the  eyes  of  the  public. 

(3)  When  Clcarne.<is  Demands  Testimony.  Testimony 
may  be  used  for  Clearness  whenever  we  know  of  a  quota- 
tion that  will  more  quickly  make  our  assertion  intelligible 
than  will  our  own  support,  or  when  adequate  Clearness 
demands  that  our  own  support  be  supplemented.     Thus. 


136  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

Huxley,  wishing  to  describe  a  fossilized  sea-urchin  founf 
in  chalk,  quotes  Sir  Charles  Lyell,  the  quotation,  in  Hux 
ley's  judgment,  excelling  anything  possible  of  his  ovm : 

"Cases  of  this  kind  are  admirably  described  by  Sii 
Charles  Lyell.  .  .  .  *The  upper  valve  is  almost  invari-" 
ably  wanting,  though  occasionally  found  in  a  perfect  state 
of  preservation  in  the  white  chalk  at  some  distance.  In 
this  case  we  see  clearly  that  the  sea-urchin  first  lived  from 
youth  to  age,  then  died  and  lost  its  spines,  which  were 
carried  away.  Then  the  young  Crania  adhered  to  the 
bared  shell,  grew  and  perished  in  its  turn;  after  which 
the  upper  valve  was  separated  from  the  lower,  before  the 
Echinus  became  enveloped  in  chalky  mud.' " 

(4)  Impressiveness  and  Testimony.  Impressiveness  de- 
mands Testimony  whenever  we  believe  quotation  will 
deepen  the  feeling  of  the  listener  in  respect  to  assertion 
more  effectively  than  our  original  material,  or  whenever 
original  material  is,  of  itself,  insufficient.  Thus  the  asser- 
tion that  "riches  are  condemned  by  the  Bible"  is  best  sup- 
ported by  Testimony  from  the  Book  itself: 

"Christ  says  'Lay  not  up  for  yourselves  treasures  on 
earth'  because  the  'deceitfulness  of  riches  chokes  the  word,' 
and,  therefore,  *a  rich  man  shall  hardly  enter  into  the 
kingdom  of  Heaven,  it  being  easier  for  a  camel  to  go 
through  the  eye  of  a  needle  than  for  a  rich  man  to  enter 
into  the  kingdom  of  God ;'  and  'Woe  unto  you  that  are 
rich,  for  ye  have  received  your  consolation,'  and  Mary  says 
'The  rich  he  hath  sent  empty  away/  and  Christ  further 
says  'Sell  all  thou  hast  and  distribute  to  the  poor,'  and  St. 
James,  'Go  to,  now,  ye  rich  men,  weep  and  howl/  for 
'hath  not  God  chosen  the  poor  of  this  world  ?' " 


TESTIMONY  13T 

(5)  Belief  and  Testimony,  Testimony  is  needed  for 
Belief  when  it  adds  the  necessary  strength  to  the  hstener's 
own  support  or  when  it  comes  into  the  listener's  experi- 
ence with  greater  actuality  than  other  forms  of  support. 
To  do  this  the  corroboration  must  be  respected  by  the 
listener.  Thus,  the  assertion  that  the  "school  teacher  is 
not  properly  treated"  is  convincingly  supported  in  this 
way: 

I.  "Nearly  all  classes,  old  and  young,  look  down  on 
school  teachers  as  upon  unfortunates  who  have  adopted 
teaching  because  there  is  no  other  way  of  livelihood  open 
to  them." — John  Gilmer  Speed. 

II.  "The  community  does  not  tempt  the  highest  type  oi 
mind  toward  this  calling,  because  of  the  inadequacy  of 
rewards  and  the  uncertainty  of  advancement  in  the  teach- 
ing profession," — Rich.  Watson  Gilder. 

III.  "We  commit  our  educational  machinery  to  the  unfit 
and  inexperienced.  We  need  able  men  and  women  of 
mature  ability,  but  we  do  not  pay  the  price  that  attract? 
such  service." — John  Davidson. 

IV.  "We  have  been  careful  as  the  nation  waxed  in  ma- 
terial prosperity  to  keep  the  pay  of  teachers  down  and  to 
shove  them  into  the  social  background  more  and  more. 
How  can  men  of  the  highest  class  be  expected  to  devote 
their  lives  to  a  profession  which  yields  little  more  than  a 
pittance  when  one  is  thoroughly  successful?  The  state  is 
satisfied  to  pay  the  average  instructor  about  as  much  as 
the  city  laborer  or  horse  car  conductor  receives." — Robert 
Grant. 

V.  "From  the  average  monthly  salaries  of  men  and 
women  teachers   i^i-ven  in  the  last  report  of  the  United 


138  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

States  Commissioner  of  Education,  and  from  the  average 
length  of  the  school  year,  the  average  yearly  salary  of  male 
teachers  is  estimated  to  be  about  $328.80  and  of  women 
teachers  $274.60. 

"Such  are  the  separate  testimonies  of  an  essayist,  an  edi- 
tor, a  professor  of  economics,  a  judge  and  a  statistician." — 
William  McAndrews. 

(6)  Action  and  Testimony.  Action  has  use  for  Testi- 
mony when  quotation  most  heightens  the  desirability  of  the 
End  sought,  makes  the  strongest  appeal  to  the  Impelling 
Motives.  The  assertion  "alcohol  is  not  healthful"  will  be 
best  supported  by  expert  testimony,  because  the  question 
is  largely  a  matter  of  scientific  knowledge.  Therefore  the 
following  is  justified: 

"M.  Berthelot,  member  of  the  Academies  of  Science  of 
Medicine:  'Alcohol  is  not  a  food,  even  though  it  may  be 
fuel.' 

"M.  Metchnikoff,  Chief  Attendant  at  the  Pasteur  Insti- 
tute: 'As  for  myself,  I  am  convinced  that  alcohol  is  a 
poison.' 

"Dr.  Lancereaux,  of  the  Academy  of  Medicine:  *Alco- 
hol  is  dangerous,  not  only  on  account  of  the  symptoms  it 
induces  in  the  nervous  system,  but  especially  on  account 
of  the  malnutrition  which  it  induces  in  the  organism  of 
one  who  indulges  in  esces=.' 

"Dr.  Hericourt,  Director  of  the  Scientific  Eeview:  'Al- 
cohol, even  in  the  dose  which  some  wish  to  class  as  health- 
ful, can  surely  be  the  cause  of  death,  by  diminishing  the 
resistence  of  the  organism  to  infectious  diseases.' 

"Dr.  Magnan,  of  the  Academy  of  Medicine,  Chief  Phy- 
sician of  St.  Anne  Insane  Asylum :  *In  my  opinion,  alcohol 


TESTIMONY  139 

would  not  be  in  any  case  a  food  to  be  recommended.  It 
pushes  into  our  asylums  of  the  Seine  almost  one-half  the 
inmates.' 

"Dr.  Legrain,  Chief  Physician  of  the  Asylums  of  Ville- 
Evrard :  *It  is  scientific  to  proclaim  it  a  perpetual  danger, 
that  alcohol,  although  a  chemical  food,  is  perfectly  use- 
less, and  that  it  is  wise  to  let  it  alone.' 

"Dr.  Garnuer,  Chief  Physician  of  the  Special  Alms- 
house Infirmary:  'The  food,  alcohol,  feeds  crime  and 
lewdness;  the  former  is  indebted  to  this  substance  for 
about  70  per  cent,  of  its  victims;  the  latter  for  33  per 
cent.     .     .     .' " — Christian  Herald. 

Here  the  Impelling  Motive  of  Self-Preservation  is  used. 

(7)  Entertainment  and  Testimony.  Entertainment 
properly  demands  Testimony  when  the  matter  that  can 
be  cited  most  increases  the  pleasure,  that  is,  most  heightens 
any  or  all  of  the  Factors  of  Interestingness  in  respect  to 
the  original  assertion.  Thus,  Frances  Meres  so  happily 
phrases  his  appreciation  of  Shakespeare  through  the  use 
of  the  Unusual  that  Ingersoll  selects  it  as  preferable  to 
anything  of  his  own,  as  pleasure-giving  support  of  the 
statement  that  Shakespeare  was  admired  in  his  own  day : 

"As  the  soul  of  Eupharbus  was  thought  to  live  in 
Pythagoras,  so  tlie  sweet  witted  soul  of  Ovid  lives  in  the 
mellifluous  and  honey-tongued  Shakespeare,"  and  "If  the 
Muses  would  speak  English  they  would  speak  in  Shake- 
speare's phrase." 

(8)  Reference  to  Experience  Ooverns  Testimony.  The 
application  of  the  principle  of  Eeference  to  Experience  to 
Testimony  gives  us  the  law:  the  more  closely  the  person, 
authority  and  matter  quoted  come  into  thn  listener's  expe- 


140  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

rience,  the  more  effective  the  Testimony.  In  a  debate  or 
discussion,  therefore,  the  acme  of  effectiveness  is  to  quote 
from  one's  antagonist;  next  to  that,  to  quote  from  his 
most  respected  authorities.  When  it  is  necessary  to  quote 
an  authority  comparatively  unknown  to  the  listener,  the 
speaker  must  overcome  this  weakness  by  reference  to  expe- 
riences that  will  bring  the  authority  into  respect,  such  as 
his  achievements,  the  deference  paid  his  opinion  by  other 
authorities  whom  the  listener  knows. 

(9)  Skill  in  the  Use  of  Testimony.  General  efficiency 
in  the  use  of  Testimony  depends  upon  accuracy  in  the  esti- 
mate of  the  average  intelligence  and  knowledge,  a  ready 
stock  of  respected  quotations,  and  a  familiarity  with  rec'- 
ognized  authorities  and  authoritative  works.  The  speaker, 
further,  should  understand  clearly  the  place  and  power  of 
Testimony  and  be  able  to  determine  when  his  ovm  support 
is  inadequate  to  the  particular  need.  He  should  be  evei 
alive  to  utterances  by  experts,  and,  as  with  Specific  In- 
stance, connote  the  matter  and  the  authority  wdth  the 
point  they  enforce.  He  should  be  familiar  with  the  lead- 
ing reference  works,  and  know  how  to  quickly  refer  to 
then\  Also,  as  far  as  possible,  he  should  know  who  are 
the  leading  authorities  on  the  subjects  he  is  interested  in. 
With  the  mind  polarized  for  authoritative  material,  it  is 
surprising  how  much  valuable  Testimony  may  be  gathered 
and  arranged  for  instant  use. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

ADDITIONAL    REMARKS    ON    THE    FOUR    FORMS    OF    SUPPORT. 

(1)  Reviewing  the  demands  of  the  General  Ends  of 
Speech  in  respect  to  the  Four  Forms  of  Support,  we  find 
that  Clearness  is  best  attained  by  Restatement  when  the 
obscurity  lies  in  the  meaning  of  the  terms ;  General  Illus- 
tration is  preferable  when  the  obscurity  lies  in  the  scope. 
Specific  Instance  should  be  used  when  obscurity  is  due  to 
inability  to  individualize  the  thing  or  things  implied; 
Testimony  is  desirable  when  a  quotation  is  more  vivid 
than  one's  own  support  or  brings  that  support  to  the  neces- 
sary Clearness.  In  other  words,  that  form  of  support  is 
preferable  which,  in  the  quiclcest  time,  will  hrlng  the 
assertion  adeqimtely  into  the  listene/s  life. 

(2)  Similarly,  when  the  End  is  Impressiveness.  The 
superiority  of  Restatement,  General  Illustration,  Specific 
Instance  or  Testimony  will  depend  upon  which  method — 
iteration,  the  presentation  of  details,  actual  instances,  or 
corrobation — can  bring  the  assertion  into  the  listener's 
experience,  with  the  necessary  emotional  vividness,  in  the 
shortest  time. 

(3)  The  same  law  governs  in  the  selection  of  the  Form 
of  Support  for  the  attainment  of  Belief. 

(4)  When  Action  is  the  End,  that  form  of  support  ia 

141 


143  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

preferable  which  most  permits  of  reference  to  experiences 
which  most  quickly  show  that  the  end  sought  favorably 
affects  the  Impelling  Motives. 

(5)  When  Entertainment  is  the  aim,  the  choice  falls 
on  that  Form  of  Support  which  permits  of  reference  to 
experiences  that  most  arouse  pleasure,  most  bring  into 
pleasurable  play  the  Seven  Factors  of  Interestingness. 

(6)  Speaking  broadly,  Clearness  calls  for  Restatement; 
Impressiveness,  for  General  Illustration;  Belief,  for  Spe- 
cific Instance;  Action,  for  Testimony  and  Specific 
Instance;  Entertainment,  for  General  Illustration. 

(7)  Means  to  Ends.  Clearness,  Impressiveness,  Belief, 
Action  and  Entertainment  have  been  discussed  solely  as 
Ends.  They  may,  however,  be  means  to  an  End.  Fre- 
quently a  speaker  seeking  Action  must  first  secure  Belief; 
Belief  frequently  demands  Impressivenes,  and  so  on.  When 
Clearness  is  an  End,  the  sole  consideration  is  the  removal 
of  obscurity;  when,  however,  it  is  a  means,  the  clearness 
should  be  achieved  in  that  way  that  most  aids  the  End. 
If  the  End  is  Action,  then,  as  far  as  possible,  the  Clear- 
ness must  be  actional ;  if  the  End  is  Belief,  the  Clearness 
must  make  for  Belief.  Similarly  when  Impressiveness, 
Belief  or  Entertainment  are  only  a  means.  They  must 
be  attained  in  that  manner  that  most  inclines  the  listener 
towards  the  desired  End.  Thus,  if  Clearness,  Impressive- 
ness, Belief  and  Entertainment  are  needed  as  a  means  to 
Action,  they  will  be  attained  with  especial  regard  to  arous- 
ing the  desire  to  do  the  thing  sought.  Henry  Ward 
Beeeher,  seeking  to  dissuade  young  men  from  cynicism, 
defines  "cynic"  by  Restatement,  as  "one  who  never  sees  a 
good  quality  in  a  man,  and  never  fails  to  see  a  bad  one," 


ADDITIONAL  BEMARKS  ON  FOUR  FORMS        143 

and  again  restates:  "He  is  the  human- owl,  vigilant  in 
darkness  and  blind  to  light,  mousing  for  vermin,  and 
never  seeing  noble  game."  Here  the  Clearness  is  attained 
in  a  way  that  leads  the  listener  towards  the  desired  End — 
Action.  Encouraging  genuine  humor,  the  same  speaker 
defines  it  as  the  power  to  ''trace  a  silver  vein  in  all  the 
affairs  of  life;  see  sparkles  of  light  in  the  gloomiest  scenes, 
and  absolute  radiance  in  those  which  are  bright."  Here, 
again,  the  Clearness  impels  toward  the  Action  desired. 
When,  therefore,  either  Clearness,  Impressiveness,  Action, 
Belief  or  Entertainment  is  a  means  to  an  End,  such 
Clearness,  etc.,  must  be  attained  in  that  manner  which 
most  helps  to  achieve  the  particular  General  End. 

(8)  The  Forms  of  Support  in  Co-operation.  Thus  far 
the  Four  Forms  of  Support  have  been  discussed  as  inde- 
pendent of  one  another.  In  the  majority  of  instances, 
aowever,  it  will  be  found  effective  to  use  two  or  more 
Forms  of  Support  in  co-operation.  The  conditions  under 
which  speaking  must  be  conducted  are  such — as  shown  in 
the  chapter  on  Cumulation — that  Clearness,  Impressive- 
ness, Belief,  Action,  are  not  secured  easily.  Effectiveness 
frequently  demands  every  legitimate  resource,  and  in  this 
light  the  co-operation  of  two  or  more  of  the  Four  Forms 
often  becomes  imperative,  A  glance  at  their  distinctive 
office,  as  already  outlined,  will  show  that  they  permit  of  a 
logical  arrangement  that  has  a  powerful  cumulative  force. 
Thus,  to  repeat  a  former  illustration,  if  we  assert,  "Greece 
had  great  men,'*  and  continue,  "She  had  master  minds" 
(Restatement),  we  drive  home  the  assertion  itself.  If. 
further,  we  add,  "She  had  orators,  philosopher?,  poets," 
we  aid  the  listener's  imagination  and  show  him  the  sweep 


144  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

of  the  assertion,  making  it  more  impressive.  If  we  go  on, 
"She  had  Demosthenes,  ^schines,  Plato,  Aristotle, 
/Eschylus,  Homer"  (Specific  Instance),  we  come  into  the 
listener's  actual  knowledge  and  emphasize  the  truth  of 
the  assertion.  And,  finally,  if  we  say,  "]\Iacaulay  says 
'Her  intellectual  empire  is  imperishable'  (Testimony),  we 
give  completeness  by  corroboration,  the  whole  making  an 
impression  that  is  clear,  vivid  and  convincing. 

Therefore  the  major  portion  of  practice  in  amplification 
should  be  given  to  the  support  of  assertions  by  the  Forms 
in  co-operation.  This  will  result  in  a  distinct  differen- 
tiation of  the  forms  in  the  speaker's  mind;  will  aid 
materially  in  the  development  of  skill  in  extemporaneous 
speaking,  and  will  give  convincingness  and  interestingness 
to  the  speaker's  style. 

The  following  is  an  example  of  the  co-operative  use  of 
three  of  the  Forms: 

"Pope  Nicholas  the  Fifth  was  the  greatest  of  the 
restorers  of  learning.  .  .  .  He  was  the  center  of  an 
ilhistrious  group,  composed  partly  of  the  last  great  scholars 
of  Greece,  and  partly  of  the  first  great  scholars  of  Italy. 
His  agents  were  to  be  found  everywhere,  in  the  bazaars  of 
the  farthest  East,  in  the  monasteries  of  the  farthest  West, 
purchasing  or  copying  worm-eaten  parchments  on  which 
were  traced  words  worthy  of  immortality.  Under  his 
patronage  were  prepared  accurate  Latin  versions  of  many 
precious  remains  of  Greek  poets  and  philosophers.  By 
him  were  introduced  to  the  knowledge  of  western  Europe 
two  great  and  unrivaled  methods  of  historical  composition, 
the  work  of  Herodotus  and  the  work  of  Thucydides.  By 
him,  too,  our  ancestors  were  first  made  acquainted  with 


ADDITIONAL  REMARKS  ON  FOUR  FORMS         145 

the  graceful  and  lucid  simplicity  of  Xenophon  and  with 
the  manly  good  sense  of  Polybius." — T.  B.  ^Macaulay. 
And,  again: 

"That  quality  is  breadth.  I  do  not  mean  liberality  ot 
thought,  not  tolerance  of  opinion,  nor  anything  of  that 
kind.  I  mean  largeness  of  movement,  the  great  utter- 
ance of  great  truths,  the  great  enforcement  of  great  duties, 
as  distinct  from  the  minute,  and  subtle,  and  ingenious 
treatment  of  little  topics,  side  issues  of  the  soul's  life,  bits 
of  anatomy,  the  bric-a-brac  of  theology.  Take  up,  some 
Sunday,  the  list  of  subjects  on  which  the  ministers  of  a 
great  city  are  to  preach  next  day.  See  how  many  of  them 
seem  to  have  searched  in  strange  corners  of  the  Bible  for 
their  topics ! — how  small  and  fantastic  is  the  bit  of  truth 
which  their  hearers  are  to  have  set  before  them!  Then 
turn  to  Barrow,  or  Tillotson,  or  Bushnell — 'Of  being  imi- 
tators of  Christ,'  'That  God  is  the  only  happiness  of  man,* 
'Every  man's  life  a  plan  of  God.' " — Phillips  Brooks. 


CHAPTEE  XVIL 

THE   STATEMENT    OF   AIM   AND  THE  CENTRAL   IDEA. 

(1)  The  General  Ends  and  the  Four  Forms  of  Support, 
understood  in  their  relation  to  the  principle  of  Reference 
to  Experience,  we  come  now  to  the  discussion  of  the  actual 
preparation  of  a  speech.  Here  (presuming  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  general  subject)  the  first  requisite  to 
effectiveness  is  the  ability  to  choose  wisely  the  Statement 
of  Aim. 

(2)  Statement  of  Aim  Defined.  The  Statement  of  Aim 
is  the  statement  of  the  precise  thing  sought.  It  resolves 
the  General  Subject  into  a  specific  assertion  of  what  the 
listener  is  to  believe ;  what  he  is  to  do ;  what  he  is  to  see, 
feel  or  enjoy.  Thus,  General  Subject  "Lincoln,"  resolved 
into  Statement  of  Aim — "Lincoln  was  great";  General 
Subject  "Evolution,"  Statement  of  Aim— "The  Theory  of 
Evolution  is  widely  accepted";  General  Subject  "The 
Nebular  Theory,"  Statement  of  Aim — "What  the  Nebular 
Theory  is."  \\Tiere  Action  is  sought,  the  Statement  of 
Aim  should  be  Actional  and  personal  in  form,  as,  General 
Subject,  "Faith,"  Statement  of  Aim — "You  should  have 
faith";  General  Subject  "Honesty,"  Statement  of  Aim — ■ 
"You  should  be  honest";  General  Subject  "Our  Goods," 
Statement  of  Aim — "You  need  our  goods."  Whatever  the 
subject,  the  speaker  should  determine  his  specific  purpose 

146 


STATEMENT  OF  AIM  AND  CENTRAL  IDEA         147 

in  respect  to  it,  and  put  it  definitely  before  him  by  a 
carefully  phrased  proposition — Statement  of  Aim. 

(3)  Value  of  the  Statement  of  Aim.  The  value  of  this 
method  is  apparent.  It  forces  the  speaker  to  be  clear. 
It  compels  him  to  extract  from  his  indefinite  subject  a 
specific  tasTc.  By  it  he  is  made  to  decide  with  absolute 
precision  what  he  will  seek  to  do.  Further,  it  results  in 
concentration.  The  assertional  form  focuses  the  mind  on 
the  thing  asserted  and  makes  the  speaker,  for  the  time 
being,  concerned  with  it  alone.  His  entire  energy  is  de- 
voted to  the  consideration  of  how  his  proposition  can  be 
made  effective.  If  the  speaker's  subject  is  "Strikes,"  and 
he  has  chosen  as  his  Statement  of  Aim,  "Strikes  do  harm," 
the  effect  of  this  propositional  expression  of  his  purpose 
is  to  concentrate  his  mind,  not  upon  strikes  in  general, 
with  all  their  hundred  and  one  relations,  but  upon  strikes 
in  respect  to  their  injurious  effects,  and  he  will  read  the 
history  of  strikes,  as  told  in  pamphlets,  periodicals,  books 
and  public  documents,  with  this  especial  regard.  He  will 
not  waste  time  upon  various  accounts  of  the  origin  of 
strikes,  strikes  in  Mars,  the  theory  of  strikes,  or  give  hours 
to  vain  imaginings  as  to  the  probability  of  strikes  in  the 
year  a.  d.  2000;  but  all  his  reading,  observation  and 
thinking  will  be  centered  upon  one  specific  thing — strikes 
in  their  aspect  of  harm.  Where  Action  is  the  end,  the 
Statement  of  Aim  through  its  verb  keeps  constantly  before 
him  the  fact  that  something  is  required  to  be  done,  and 
through  its  subject  persistently  shows  him  his  specific 
listener  or  listeners.  In  these  ways  the  speaker  finds  his 
power  increased  through  the  use  of  the  Statement  of  Aim. 
.  /4i  The  Scove  of  the  Statement  of  Aim.   The  scope  of 


148  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

the  Statement  of  Aim  should  be  within  the  range  of 
possible  achievement.  "You  should  vote  the  Republican 
ticket"  might,  on  scrutiny,  be  found  impossible  to  attain; 
while  "You  should  vote  for  the  local  Republican  ticket," 
or  "You  should  vote  for  Mr.  Jones,  Republican,"  might 
be  successful.  "You  should  be  moral"  might  be  too 
indefinite,  too  inclusive,  for  the  listener  to  obey,  whereas, 
"You  should  never  gamble"  would  be  acted  upon.  The 
scope,  then,  of  the  Statement  of  Aim  should  be  sufficiently 
narrow  to  permit  of  results.  Sometimes  the  end  sought 
is  arbitrary  and  permits  of  no  enlargement  or  narrowing. 
The  speaker,  then,  of  course,  has  no  alternative  but  to  do 
the  best  he  can  under  the  restriction. 

(5)  The  Central  Idea.  The  Statement  of  Aim  deter- 
mined, the  next  step  in  effectiveness  is  the  wise  selection 
of  the  Central  Idea.  The  Central  Idea  is  that  specific 
propositional  idea  the  acceptance  of  which,  the  speaker 
believes,  will  most  likely  attain  the  end  sought,  as  embodied 
in  the  Statement  of  Aim.  It  is  the  hub  of  the  matter — 
the  central  thing.  As  the  "Central"  of  a  telephone  system 
is  the  converging  and  diverging  point  to  and  from  which 
all  lines  run,  so  is  the  Central  Idea  of  a  speech  the  center 
to  which  and  from  which  run  all  lines  of  thought.  The 
Central  Idea  comes  from  the  contemplation  of  the  State- 
ment of  Aim.  It  is  the  answer  to  the  question — what  will 
best  make  my  listener  see,  feel,  enjoy,  believe  or  do  the 
thing  specified  in  my  Statement  of  Aim?  The  Statement 
of  Aim  says,  "Washington  was  greater  than  Napoleon"; 
the  Central  Idea  says,  "Washington,  with  less  aid,  achieved 
more  than  Napoleon,"  as  being  common  ground,  which,  if 
adequately  covered,  will  result  in  acceptance  of  the  State- 


STATEMENT  OF  AIM  AND  CENTRAL  IDEA         149 

ment  of  Aim.  Again,  Statement  of  Aim — "You  should  be 
honest,"  Central  Idea — "Honesty  is  an  inseparable  part 
of  manhood,"  or  "Honesty  pays,"  or  "Honesty  means 
greater  happiness" — whatever,  in  the  speakers  judgment, 
if  proven,  will  secure  most  effectively  the  desired  action  as 
expressed  in  the  Statement  of  Aim. 

(6)  Distinction  Between  Statement  of  Aim  and  Central 
Idea.  While  in  some  instances  the  speaker  may  elect  to 
use  the  Statement  of  Aim  as  his  Central  Idea,  and  war- 
rantably  so,  as  shown  later,  their  offices  are  distinct.  The 
Statement  of  Aim  is  primarily  for  the  use  of  the  speaker, 
and  leads  him  into  his  Central  Idea;  the  Central  Idsa  is 
for  the  listener,  and  leads  him  into  the  Statement  of  Aim. 
Efficiency  demands  that  this  difference  be  kept  constrintly 
in  view. 

(7)  The  Obverse  of  Central  Idea.  As  an  incidental  but 
useful  aid  in  the  effective  development  of  a  Central  Idea, 
it  is  well  to  set  down  its  obverse.  Thus,  Statement  of  Aim 
— "Be  Just,"  Central  Idea — "Justice  means  a  clear  con- 
science"; Obverse  of  Central  Idea — "Injustice  means  a 
troubled  conscience."  This  method  keeps  the  speaker  on 
the  lookout  for  material  and  arguments  for  contrast  and 
comparison,  and  thus  enables  him  to  present  his  thought 
in  the  most  powerful  way. 

(8)  The  Value  of  the  Central  Idea.  The  advantages 
resulting  from  the  use  of  the  Central  Idea  are  great.  It 
gives  a  coherency  that  is  obtainable  in  no  othor  way.  All 
fog  vanishes.  It  gives  the  speaker  a  definite  destination. 
He  finds  his  mind  focused  (as  with  the  Statement  of 
Aim)  on  one  precise  proposition.  All  his  reading  and 
observation  and  reflection  instantly  and  naturally  concen- 


150  EFPECTIVE  SPEAKING 

trate  upon  the  one  specific  purpose.  Irrelevant  material 
that  would  otherwise  have  encumbered  him  is  instantly 
rejected,  and  only  those  facts,  arguments  and  illustrations 
chosen  that  are  pertinent.  Using  this  method,  the  lawyer 
finds  himself  forced  to  stop  his  rambling  and  decide  upon 
the  precise  thing  he  wishes  to  lodge  in  the  minds  of  the 
jury;  by  it  the  preacher  is  compelled  to  select  from  his 
text,  not  an  abstraction,  leading  anywhere,  with  its  firstly, 
secondly,  fifthly,  but  the  exact  proposition  that  he  believes 
will  most  powerfully  affect  his  audience.  Also,  through 
its  use  the  political  speaker  is  made  to  resolve  his  chaotic 
impulses  into  one  definite,  productive  proposition.  By  this 
method,  the  listener,  instead  of  being  hurried  up  and  down 
every  possible  avenue,  shown  a  glimpse  here  and  there, 
only  to  be  rushed  to  another  viewpoint,  and  then  another 
and  another,  until  he  has  lost  all  knowledge  of  his  bearings, 
his  only  impression  a  blur,  finds  himself  contemplating 
the  subject  from  the  all-important  viewpoint  and  having 
sufficient  time  in  which  to  be  adequately  impressed.  In 
every  field  of  speech,  business,  social,  professional,  the 
speaker  will  find  his  power  of  influencing  others  markedly 
increased  by  the  use  of  the  Central  Idea. 

(9)  Great  Speakers  Use  the  Central  Idea.  When  we 
examine  closely  the  really  great  speeches,  we  find  that, 
consciously  or  unconsciously,  the  speakers  used  the  Central 
Idea  as  here  defined,  rather  than  what  is  commonly  called 
the  theme.  Patrick  Henry  forged  his  irresistible  argu- 
ments from  the  prepositional  germ,  "War  is  our  only  alter- 
native"; Erskine,  in  his  great  argument  in  the  Stockdale 
case,  is  animated  at  every  step  of  his  splendid  plea  by  a 
proposition,  "The  spirit  of  the  book  is  not  libelous."  Thus 


STATEMENT  OF  ATM  AND  CENTRAL  IDEA         151 

centralized,  the  arguments  and  facts  of  the  speakers  came 
with  a  convincing  cumulation  that  was  irresistible. 

(10)  The  General  End  Governs  Statement  of  Aim  and 
Central  Idea.  In  the  selection  of  the  Statement  of  Aim 
and  the  Central  Idea,  the  speaker  must  never  lose  sight  of 
his  General  End.  If  his  end  is  Impressiveness,  the  State- 
ment of  Aim  and  the  Central  Idea  must  be  chosen  with 
especial  regard  to  the  attainment  of  the  desired  emotional 
association;  if  Action,  it  must  be  remembered  that  the 
purpose  is  to  have  something  done;  if  Entertainment,  there 
must  be  uppermost  the  need  of  giving  pleasure;  if  Belief, 
the  need  of  securing  acceptance — in  every  instance  the 
determination  of  the  Statement  of  Aim  and  Central  Idea 
must  be  governed  by  the  demands  of  the  General  End. 

(11)  Modifications.  In  some  instances  a  Central  Idea 
may  not  be  used.  In  the  case  of  a  talk  on  a  trip  around 
the  world,  the  intention  being  to  give  a  running  account  of 
the  episodes,  sights,  etc.,  regardless  of  their  relation,  no 
Central  Idea  could  be  chosen,  because  there  can  be  no 
unity.  In  other  cases  the  speaker  may  elect  to  use  as  his 
Central  Idea  his  Statement  of  Aim.  He  may  do  so  justi- 
fiably whenever  he  believes  that  the  best  way  to  attain  his 
purpose  is  to  focus  the  attention  upon  the  Statement  of 
Aim  in  its  full  scope.  This  usually  implies  that  the  time 
at  his  disposal  permits  of  a  development  that  is  compre- 
hensive (as  in  the  case  of  a  speech  in  the  United  States 
Senate,  where  time  is  unlimited),  or  that  the  scope  of  the 
Aim  is  comparatively  narrow  and  easy  of  attainment,  as, 
for  example,  "Lincoln's  speech  at  Gettysburg  is  an  example 
of  good  style."  Even  these  instances,  however,  are  subject 
to  the  greater  law    (developed   more   fully   in  the  next 


152  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 


chapter)  that  the  Central  Idea  must  be  the  one  that  will 
attain  the  purpose  most  quickly,  that  will  come  with 
adequate  cumulation  into  the  listener's  experience  in  the 
shortest  time. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

THE  CENTRAL  IDEA  (continued). 

(1)  The  Central  Idea,  to  be  effective,  must  meet  five 
demands.  (1)  It  must  be  a  proposition  which  involves  the 
Statement  of  Aim.  (2)  It  must  permit  of  a  development 
that  will  bring  it  vividly  into  the  listener's  experience — 
make  it  a  reality.  (3)  It  must  have  no  broader  scope  than 
can  be  effectively  developed  in  the  time  allotted.  (4)  There 
must  inhere  in  it  interestingness.  (5)  It  should  be  gen- 
erative. 

(2)  Central  Idea  Must  Involve  Statement  of  Aim.  The 
Central  Idea  has  its  main  justification  and  power  in  the 
warranted  assumption  that  a  listener  or  audience  will  ac- 
cept a  part  as  standing  for  the  whole;  that  in  almost  every 
assertion  there  are  phases  of  it  which,  if  properly  devel- 
oped, will  come  into  the  listener's  experience  with  vivid- 
ness sufficient  to  cause  him  to  say  "you  have  presented  to 
me  enough  of  the  proposition  to  enable  me  to  see  all,  feel 
all,  believe  all,  enjoy  all,  do  all  (as  the  case  may  be)  — 
your  part  is  adequate  for  the  whole.  You  made  me  feel 
Lincoln's  greatnc?s  through  making  me  feel  Lincoln's 
greatness  in  the  civil  war;  you  have  convinced  me  that 
strikes  do  harm  by  proving  to  me  that  the  great  Railroad 
Strike  of  1894  wrought  great  injury.    You  have  won  my 

153 


154  ejp^ective  speaking 

vote  for  your  party  as  a  whole  by  convincing  me  that  it  has 
accomplished  a  genuine  reform  in  one  specific  thing." 

(3)  This  willingness,  however,  to  accept  a  part  as  ade- 
quate for  the  whole  does  not  mean  any  part.  And  therein 
lies  the  ivarning  to  the  speaker.  He  must  take  care  to 
select  one  of  those  phases  (or  that  phase)  which  he  feels 
reasonably  sure,  when  developed,  will  meet  not  his  own  but 
the  listener's  idea  of  adequateness.  Thus,  if  the  State- 
ment of  Aim  is  "Paul  was  the  greatest  of  the  apostles," 
he  might  select  as  the  Central  Idea,  "Paul  wrote  the  great- 
est epistle";  but  a  moment's  reflection  would  convince 
him  that  many  of  his  auditors  would  not  accept  this,  even 
if  proven,  as  adequate  evidence  of  the  superiority  of  Paul 
over  his  brethren.  If,  however,  he  chose  as  his  Central 
Idea,  "Paul  did  most  for  the  Christian  cause,"  he  would 
be  on  much  safer  ground,  for,  with  the  average  listener, 
to  do  most  for  the  cause  of  Christ  would  be  accepted  as  a 
fair  standard  by  ^hich  to  measure  the  relative  greatness 
of  the  apostles.  Again,  if  our  Statement  of  Aim  is  "Jones 
is  not  guilty  of  stealing,"  the  Central  Idea  "Jones  himself 
swears  so'"  would  not  be  effective  because  it  would  not 
be  accepted  as  involving  the  Statement  of  Aim.  But 
(S.  A.)  "Jones  was  not  guilty  of  stealing"  because  (C.  I.) 
"Jones  at  the  time  of  the  theft  was  elsewhere,"  if  proven, 
would  be  accepted  as  adequate.  Effectiveness,  then,  in 
the  use  of  the  Central  Idea  demands  that  it  shall  involve, 
in  the  minds  of  the  audience,  the  Statement  of  Aim, 

(4)  Reference  to  Experience  Governs  Central  Idea. 
Not  only  must  the  Central  Idea  carry  with  it  the  State- 
ment of  Aim,  it  must  be  a  Central  Idea  chosen  with  regard 
to  its  possibilities  of  adequate  development.   The  question 


THE  CENTRAL  IDEA  155 

must  ever  be — what  idea  lodged  in  the  mind  of  the  listener 
while  connoting  the  Statement  of  x\im  will  permit  of  a 
support  that  will  attain  the  necessary  Clearness,  Im- 
pressiveness,  Belief,  Action  or  Entertainment?  In  other 
words,  what  idea  will  permit  of  a  development  that  will 
bring  it  into  the  listener's  life  and  cause  him  to  say  "you 
have  shown  to  my  entire  satisfaction  that  your  Central 
Idea  is  like  my  own  experience"?  Thus,  when  the  End 
is  Clearness,  that  Central  Idea  should  be  chosen  which 
most  enables  the  speaker  to  liken  the  thing  to  be  made 
clear  to  the  clearest  equivalent  in  the  listener's  experience. 
For  Impressiveness,  that  Central  Idea  is  preferable  which 
permits  resemblance  to  the  thing  deepest  in  the  listener's 
feelings ;  for  Belief,  that  thought  whicli  allows  of  a  paral- 
lel with  the  listener's  strongest  convictions ;  for  Entertain- 
ment, that  idea  that  will  permit  of  reference  to  the  most 
vivid  pleasurable  experiences. 

To  prove  tliat  a  nation  is  prosperous,  the  Central  Idea 
most  effective  with  workingmen  might  be  the  increase 
in  wages  or  the  unprecedented  demand  for  labor;  with 
financial  men,  the  high  rate  of  interest;  with  commercial 
men,  the  great  volume  of  profitable  trade ;  and  so  on.  To 
arouse  a  deep  feeling  of  admiration  for  the  greatness  of 
Washington,  the  preferable  Central  Idea  for  an  audience 
of  soldiers  would  likely  be,  "he  displayed  great  general- 
ship"; with  a  body  of  plain  citizens,  *Tie  exhibited  great 
citizenship" ;  with  politicians,  'Tie  was  a  great  statesman." 
The  Central  Idea,  therefore,  should  be  one  that  tallies  with 
the  vivid  experiences  of  the  audience  in  respect  to  the  par- 
ticular aim. 


166  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

(5)  Action  and  the  Central  Idea.  For  Action  that  Cen- 
tral Idea  is  best  which  permits  of  References  to  Experi- 
ence that  most  favorably  affect  the  Impelling  Motives. 
These  Motives  are  explained  in  the  chapter  on  Action. 
Carefully  go  over  this  chapter  and  then  practice  the  selec- 
tion of  Central  Ideas  with  the  Impelling  Motives  in  view. 
If  the  Statement  of  Aim  is  "Vote  our  party's  ticket,"  the 
Central  Idea  might  be  (if  true),  "our  party's  success  will 
increase  your  happiness  more  than  the  success  of  any 
other  party."  Here  "Happiness"  permits  the  use,  if 
needed,  of  the  Seven  Impelling  Motives.  Thus — "Our 
party's  success  will  increase  your  happiness  because  there 
will  be  greater  protection  to  life,  less  fear  or  likelihood  of 
riot,  rebellion  or  international  strife"  (Motive  of  Self- 
Preservation) ;  "you  will  have  a  greater  income"  (Motive 
of  Property) ;  "our  party's  success  will  increase  your 
neighbor's  good  opinion  of  you.  You  will  be  known  as  a 
wise  counsellor"  (Reputation) ;  "you  will  be  able  to  give 
more  comforts  and  advantages  to  your  family — greater 
joy  to  those  whom  you  love"  (Motive  of  Affections) ;  "you 
and  yours  will  enjoy  greater  liberty"  (Motive  of  Senti- 
ments) ;  "you  will  be  able  to  give  freer  play  to  your 
aesthetic  desires"  (Motive  of  Tastes).  Such  of  these  ap- 
peals to  the  Impelling  Motives  will  be  chosen  as  can  be 
brought  vividly  into  the  listener's  experience.  Whenever 
the  aim  is  to  have  something  done,  the  Central  Idea  must 
always  be  chosen  with  regard  to  the  effective  use  of  the 
Principle  of  Reference  to  Experience  applied  to  the  Im- 
pelling Motives. 

(6)  Scope  of  Central  Idea  Must  Be  Determined  Care' 
fully.   The  Central  Idea  must  not  only  involve  the  State- 


THE  CENTEAL  IDEA  157 

ment  of  Aim  and  permit  of  a  development  that  cornea 
within  the  experience  of  the  audience,  but  it  must  permit 
of  this  development  within  the  time  allowed;  in  other 
words,  it  must  have  the  right  scope.  Of  two  Central  Ideas, 
both  involving  the  Statement  of  Aim  and  both  permitting 
of  references  to  the  experience  of  audience,  that  one  is 
preferable  which  is  attainable,  most  vividly,  in  the  given 
time.  Thus,  to  prove  that  a  nation  is  prosperous  to  an 
audience  of  workingmen,  we  might  choose  for  the  Central 
Idea — presuming  each  involves  Statement  of  Aim  and 
comes  within  experience  of  audience — "Wages  are  high," 
or  "Wages  are  higher  than  ever  before  in  our  history.'' 
On  the  presumption  stated  we  would  choose  the  Central 
Idea  with  the  lesser  scope  (wages  are  high),  because,  in 
the  time  allotted,  it  could  be  brought  home  to  the  audi- 
ence more  convincingly,  more  adequately. 

(7)  The  determination  of  this  breadth  should  depend 
upon  a  careful  estimate  of  the  particular  conditions  under 
which  one  speaks,  and  the  nature  of  one's  aim.  That  (as  a 
rule)  the  shorter  the  time,  the  narrower  should  be  the  idea, 
is  self-evident.  Less  can  be  covered  in  ten  minutes  than 
in  twenty.  Also  the  greater  the  opposition,  the  narrower 
the  scope.  Similarly,  the  greater  the  unfamiliarity  with 
topic,  the  less  broad  the  idea,  and  with  regard  to  the  Gen- 
eral Ends  of  speech,  inasmuch  as  it  is  easier  to  make  a 
thing  impressive  than  to  win  for  it  belief,  and  as  belief 
is  less  hard  to  attain  than  action,  it  follow?,  generally 
speaking,  that  the  scope  may  be  broadest  when  Clearness 
is  the  End,  less  broad  when  the  End  is  Impressivenese, 
still  less  with  Belief  and  least  with  Action.  The  scope 
where  the  End  is  Entertainment  may  be  comprehensive. 


158  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

If  our  End  was  Belief,  and  our  Statement  of  Aim,  "We 
should  admire  Toussaint  L'Ouverture,"  we  might  choose 
as  our  Central  Idea,  "He  was  a  great  man,"  or,  as  claimed 
by  Wendell  Phillips,  "Toussaint  was  the  greatest  man  that 
ever  lived."  Both  of  these  are  common  starting  points, 
for,  if  either  be  proved  to  the  satisfaction  of  our  audience, 
admiration  for  Toussaint  is  the  result.  But  to  prove  that 
he  was  the  greatest  man  demands  innumerable  compari- 
sons. We  must  prove  his  claims  over  those  of  Washing- 
ton, Lincoln,  and  the  long  line  of  world-admired  heroes. 
This  would  be  impossible  in  the  time  allotted  for  a  lecture. 
Therefore  this  idea  is  too  broad,  and  it  is  this  fact  that 
makes  parts  of  the  lecture  of  Wendell  Phillips  on  "Tous- 
saint L'Ouverture"  read  like  bombast.  As  our  aim  of 
admiration  for  Toussaint  can  be  achieved  effectively  by; 
our  narrower  idea,  "He  was  a  great  man,"  we  should  select 
this  latter.  Most  speakers  attempt  to  cover  too  much 
ground.  The  result  is  a  haziness  and  indefiniteness,  a  fail- 
ure to  convince,  a  lost  opportunity.  Ideas  are  forces; 
often  they  have  tremendous  power,  and  the  speaker  must 
see  that  sufficient  time  is  given  for  them  to  take  root. 

(8)  The  speaker  is  again  reminded  that  in  determining 
the  scope  the  basis  of  decision  is,  what  idea,  in  the  given 
time,  will  come  into  the  experience  of  the  audience  most 
vividly;  what  idea,  in  the  ten,  twenty  or  fifty  minutes 
allotted,  will  permit  of  references  to  experience  of  audi- 
ence with  the  greatest  cumulation — in  other  words,  what 
Central  Idea  will  attain  the  purpose  most  completely?  A 
speaker  may  make  liis  idea  clear,  clearer,  clearest ;  he  may 
have  his  audience  feel  or  feel  deeply;  he  may  win  them 
to  half-hearted  action  or  to  whole-hearted;  he  may  make 


THE  CENTRAL  IDEA  169 

them  believe  mildly  or  believe  intensely.  If,  therefore,  in 
the  specific  time  one  Central  Idea  will  attain  the  purpose 
in  a  mild  degree,  while  another  Central  Idea  will  attain 
it  in  a  great  degree,  the  latter  Idea  is  plainly  preferable. 
The  Central  Idea,  then,  will  have  a  scope  no  wider  than 
can  be  made  adequately  effective  in  the  time  allotted  under 
the  particular  conditions. 

(9)  Great  SpeaJccrs  Carefully  Determine  Scope.  Great 
speakers  have  recognized  the  need  of  care  in  respect  to 
tlie  scope  of  the  Central  Idea.  A  notable  instance  is 
Henry  Ward  Beecher.  A  study  of  his  speeches  and  ser- 
mons will  reveal  the  great  art  with  which  he  chose  a  Cen- 
tral Idea  sufficiently  restricted  in  its  range  to  give  time 
to  pile  proof  upon  proof,  to  restate  again  and  again,  until 
it  had  become  a  living  factor  in  the  listener.  An  instance 
of  Beecher's  success  with  this  method  is  found  in  the 
testimony  of  a  President  of  the  United  States,  who  stated 
in  a  public  meeting  that  Beecher  had  so  deeply  impressed 
a  central  thought  upon  his  (the  President's)  mind  that  it 
had  guided  his  conduct  for  forty  years. 

(10)  The  Central  Idea  Should  Be  Generative.  As  far 
as  practicable,  the  Central  Idea  must  be  so  chosen  and  so 
phrased  that  it  arouses  in  the  spealcer  the  keenest  desire 
to  develop  it.  It  must  make  him  enthusiastic  and  impel 
him  to  research  and  reflection.  The  speaker,  therefore, 
should  turn  his  Statement  of  Aim  round  and  round  until 
he  gets  an  angle  of  view  thnt  interests  him  and  secures  the 
deepest  concentration.  Thus,  the  Statement  of  Aim,  "We 
should  abolish  Child  Labor,"  oifers  many  viewpoints  for 
a  Central  Idea.  We  may  say,  "Because  children  should 
be  at  school,"  or  "Because  it  keeps  able-bodied  men  out  of 


160  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKINa 

work,"  or  "Because  it  reduces  wages."  But  none  of  these 
may  arouse  in  us  the  necessary  enthusiasm  for  our  aim. 
Looking  into  it  more  closely,  we  find  indisputable  evidence 
that  child  labor  is  actually  destroying  the  physical  and 
mental  powers  of  the  child.  Here  we  have  a  Central  Idea 
that  at  once  interests  us.  We  phrase  it,  "Because  Child 
Labor  is  cliild  murder."  Now  our  whole  being  is  aroused. 
No  labor  is  too  hard,  no  detail  too  irksome,  no  time  too 
long  to  get  the  data  that  will  be  most  effective.  There  will 
be  earnestness  in  the  creation.  We  have  enlisted  in  a 
worthy  cause,  and  the  speech  will  be  a  thing  of  power, 
for  into  it  will  go  both  sense  and  soul. 

(11)  The  Central  Idea  Must  Have  Interestingness. 
Every  Central  Idea  must  have  the  power  of  iminediately 
arresting  the  attention  and  permit  of  a  development  that 
will  retain  it.  The  Factors  of  Interestingness  have  been 
discussed  fully  in  the  chapter  on  Entertainment.  This 
chapter  should  now  be  re-studied  and  its  teachings  applied 
in  making  the  choice  of  the  Central  Idea.  Let  the  speaker 
ask  hiinself  the  question :  "Will  my  Central  Idea  be  inter- 
esting to  my  audience — is  there  in  it  the  Vital,  the  Un- 
usual, the  Uncertain,  the  Similar,  the  Antagonistic,  the 
Concrete,  the  Animate?  If  not  directly,  does  my  Central 
Idea  indirectly  suggest  or  permit  of  their  use  in  its  logical 
development?  If  impossible  to  have  all  the  Factors,  are 
the  more  important  ones  included?"  Thus,  if  the  State- 
ment of  Aim  is:  "You  must  take  an  active  interest  vi 
politics,"  the  Central  Idea  might  be  (if  so  believing), 
"Our  nation  is  in  grave  danger."  Testing  this,  we  will 
find  that  it  not  only  involves  our  Statement  of  Aim,  but 
includes  the  majority  of  the  Factors  of  Interestingness. 


THE  CENTRAL  TDEA  161 

It  is  Vital — the  audience  is  deeply  concerned  in  the  nation's 
weal.  It  is  Unusual — the  nation  is  not  always  in  danger. 
It  is  Uncertain — the  audience  awaits  with  earnest  curiosity 
the  development  in  respect  to  the  nature  of  the  danger. 
It  implies  the  Antagonistic — suggests  the  conflict  of  good 
and  evil  forces.  It  is  Concrete — it  deals  with  a  real  thing, 
not  an  abstraction.  It  also  suggests  the  Animate,  a  nation 
is  composed  of  human  beings,  and  national  danger  implies 
active  agencies.  Here  our  Central  Idea  has  all  but  one 
of  the  Seven  Factors.  In  every  instance,  as  far  as  prac- 
ticable, the  speaker  must  choose  his  Central  Idea  with  a 
view  to  its  interest-arousing  and  interest-sustaining  possi- 
bilities. 

(12)  Central  Idea  and  Comparison  and  Contrast.  When 
the  aim  is  to  show  the  superiority  of  a  certain  thing  or 
course,  the  Central  Idea  should  be  phrased  so  as  to  involve 
comparison.  Thus,  Statement  of  Aim :  "Municipal  Own- 
ership of  Public  Utilities  is  Desirable";  Central  Idea: 
"By  its  adoption  you  will  be  better  off."  Here  the  phrase 
"better  off"  will  keep,  constantly,  before  the  mind  the 
great  essential  of  Comparison.  It  will  lead  the  speaker  to 
present  his  matter  in  the  most  effective  way,  the  superior 
alongside  the  inferior.  Contrast  will  be  obtained  by  ob- 
serving the  rule,  already  set  down,  of  stating  the  Obverse 
of  the  Central  Idea. 

(13)  Knowledge  of  Audience  Aids  Choice  of  Central 
Idea.  The  selection  of  an  effective  Central  Idea  is  mate- 
rially aided  by  the  speaker  carefully  reviewing  the  probable 
knowledge,  characteristics  and  intelligence  of  the  particu- 
lar listener  or  listeners — their  beliefs,  likes,  dislikes — spir- 
itual, moral,  intellectual,  as  the  case  may  be.    By  compar- 


iQ^  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

ing  these  with  the  specific  needs  of  the  Statement  of  Aim 
there  will  be  revealed  to  him  the  particular  Central  Idea 
and  development  that  will  be  most  effective. 

(14)  The  Forms  of  Support  and  the  Central  Idea.  The 
Forms  of  Support  may  be  used  as  a  help  in  placing  before 
the  speaker  the  material  from  which  to  make  his  choice  of 
a  Central  Idea.  The  Statement  of  Aim  being  also  an  asser- 
tion, its  support  by  three  of  the  Forms — General  Illustra- 
tion, Specific  Instance  and  Testimony — may  reveal  the 
Central  Idea  that  is  preferable.  Thus  if  our  Statement  of 
Aim  is  "Strikes  do  harm,"  we  could  support  it  by : 

General  illustration: 
They  injure  the  community. 
They  injure  the  employer. 
They  injure  the  striker. 
They  arouse  bad  passions. 
They  cause  riots. 
They  breed  anarchy. 
They  hamper  production. 
They  retard  progress. 

Specific  Instance : 

The  Eailroad  Strike  of  1894  worked  great  injury  to 
the  country. 

The  Coal  Strike  of  Pennsylvania  caused  great  suffer- 
ing. 

The  Homestead  Strike  wrought  great  havoc. 

Testimony: 

Court  records  show  great  damage  caused  by  strikea. 


THE  CENTRAL  IDEA  163 

Government  reports  testify  to  the  evil  of  strikes. 

It  will  be  perceived  that  any  one  or  a  combination  of 
these  supporting  statements,  whether  General  Illustration, 
Specific  Instance,  or  Testimony,  could  be  used  as  a  Central 
Idea,  so  that,  by  the  use  of  these  Forms,  there  is  at  once 
presented  a  variety  of  viewpoints  from  which  to  choose. 
Actual  choice,  of  course,  will  be  based  on  which,  if  any, 
meets  the  requisites  of  the  Central  Idea  as  set  forth  in 
the  preceding  paragraphs. 

(15)  Restatement  cannot  be  used  as  a  Central  Idea  be- 
cause Restatement,  as  shown  elsewhere,  is  nothing  but  a 
repetition  in  different  words.  Sometimes  it  has  a  value, 
however,  in  revealing  to  the  speaker  how  best  his  Central 
Idea  should  be  phrased.  This  help  is  obtained  by  restating 
the  chosen  Central  Idea  in  several  ways  and  choosing  that 
phrasing  which  will  be  most  effective  with  an  audience, 
and,  as  far  as  first  requisite  permits,  will  most  inspire 
himself. 

(16)  Recapitulation.  Recapitulating  the  discussion  in 
this  chapter  and  the  preceding,  it  has  been  pointed  out  that 
the  first  step  in  the  development  of  an  actual  speech  is  the 
choice  of  a  Statement  of  Aim ;  that  the  Statement  of  Aim 
is  the  speaker's  precise  purpose  expressed  in  the  form  of 
a  proposition ;  that  the  scope  of  the  Statement  of  Aim 
should  be  within  the  range  of  effective  development ;  that 
the  Statement  of  Aim  selected,  there  next  must  be  chosen 
the  Central  Idea;  that  the  Central  Idea  is  that  central 
thought  by  which  it  is  intended  to  achieve  the  speaker's 
purpose  as  expressed  in  his  Statement  of  Aim;  that  the 
Central  Idea  must  involve  the  Statement  of  Aim;  that 
both  must  keep  in  view  the  General  End ;  that  the  Central 
Idea  should  be  generative,  must  have  interestingness,  must 


164  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

have  a  scope  in  keeping  with  the  allotted  time  and  the  diflB- 
culty  of  the  task;  that  its  selection  is  aided  by  the  use 
of  the  Forms  of  Support,  and  that  the  best  Central  Idea 
is  that  which,  in  the  allotted  time,  will  come  into  the  lis- 
tener's experience  with  the  greatest  cumulation  or  vivid- 
ness— that  will  most  enable  the  listener  to  see,  feel,  accept, 
enjoy  or  do  the  thing  proposed  in  the  Statement  of  Aim. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

THE   SUB-IDEAS. 

(1)  The  Central  Idea  decided  upon,  the  next  step  is 
the  selection  of  the  Sub-Ideas.  Sub-Ideas  are  those  lesser 
ideas  which  the  speaker  uses  to  make  the  Central  Idea 
effective  and  which  grow  out  of  the  Central  Idea.  The  law 
governing  the  selection  of  Sub-Ideas  is  simple.  That 
Sub-Idea  is  most  valuable  which  most  brings  the  Central 
Idea  into  the  listener's  experience,  most  makes  it  resemble 
what  he  most  deeply  sees,  feels,  believes,  enjoys,  desires, 
as  the  case  may  be.  The  speaker,  therefore,  will  go  into 
the  listener's  experience,  to  the  best  of  his  ability,  and 
select  the  sub-thought  which,  properly  amplified,  will  most 
show  the  listener's  agreement  with  the  Central  Idea.  That 
done,  the  Sub-Idea  of  next  closest  resemblance  is  chosen, 
then  the  next,  and  so  on  until  the  number  adequate  to 
the  end  in  view,  is  selected.  Thus,  if  the  Statement  of 
Aim  is  "We  should  admire  the  United  States,"  and  our 
Central  Idea — "She  has  rendered  great  services  to  the 
world,*'  the  speaker  will  recall  her  various  services,  and 
then  select,  as  the  most  valuable  Sub-Idea,  that  service 
which,  developed,  will  come  most  vividly  into  the  listener's 
experience  as  a  great  service ;  then,  that  service  wliich  will 
be  considered  the  next  greatest,  and  so  on  to  the  number 

166 


166  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

necessary  to  produce  the  desired  effect.  The  working  rule, 
then,  is:  Give  value  to  Sub-Ideas  in  the  order  that  they 
powerfully  bring  your  Central  Idea  into  the  experience 
of  the  audience. 

(2)  Overcoming  Objections.  Wliere  a  speaker  must 
overcome  objections  to  his  view,  he  must  determine  what 
is  the  greatest  objection,  and  select  as  its  answer  that 
thought  which,  properly  amplified,  will  most  come  into 
the  listener's  experience  as  overcoming  the  objection.  Ap- 
plying the  method:  if  the  speaker's  Central  Idea  is  that 
municipalities  should  own  and  operate  their  street  rail- 
wa3's,  and  the  audience  in  the  main  are  opposed  to  this 
view,  he  will  first  determine  what  is  the  greatest  objection 
they  have  to  his  proposition.  This  is  usually  the  one  the 
speaker  hears  most  frequently.  He  decides  that  the  great- 
est objection  is  the  fear  of  corruption.  And  the  answer 
to  this  that  will  come  most  into  the  experience  of  his 
audience  is  his  most  valuable  argument.  This  answer, 
he  concludes,  after  surveying  his  material,  is  the  fact  that 
there  is  no  corruption  in  the  municipality's  administra- 
tion of  its  waterworks,  electric  light  and  fire  departments, 
and,  therefore,  he  piles  up  detailed  specific  references  to 
their  freedom  from  this  taint.  In  this  way  he  brings  his 
audience  into  a  familiar  field,  and  asks  for  their  approval 
on  a  basis  of  what  "they  themselves  do  know." 

The  most  important  objection  and  its  answers  deter- 
mined upon,  the  speaker  will  proceed  along  similar  lines 
to  determine  what  of  his  material  is  next  in  importance, 
and  so  on. 

In  some  instances  it  may  be  found  tliat  the  main  ob- 
jection arises  from  a  misconception  of  the  subject.    If  so. 


THE  SUB-IDEAS  167 

make  all  clear  by  a  careful  use  of  the  Principle  of  Refer- 
ence to  Experience. 

Sometimes,  the  greatest  barrier  lies  in  a  belief  by  the 
audience  that  the  subject  is  of  little  importance.  The 
speaker  should  first  correct  this  impression,  coming  as 
closely  as  possible  into  tlicir  lives  in  doing  so. 

(3)  Example  of  Wise  Selection  of  Sub-Idea.  The  fol- 
lowing excerpt  from  the  celebrated  speech  of  William  Jen- 
nings Bryan,  which  resulted  in  his  first  nomination  for 
the  presidency,  is  an  excellent  example  of  the  correct 
choice  of  a  Sub-Idea  to  correspond  to  the  mental  attitude 
of  a  given  audience : 

"We  say  to  you  (our  opponents)  that  you  have  made  the 
definition  of  a  business  man  too  limited  in  its  applica- 
tion.    The  man  who  is  employed  for  wages  is  as  much 
a  business  man  as  his  employer ;  the  attorney  in  a  country 
town  is  as  much  a  business  man  as  the  corporation  coun- 
sel in  a  great  metropolis;  the  merchant  at  the  cross-roads 
store  is  as  much  a  business  man  as  the  merchant  of  New 
York ;  the  farmer  who  goes  forth  in  the  morning  and  toils 
all  day — who  begins  in  the  spring  and  toils  all  summer 
— and  who  by  application  of  brain  and  muscle  to  the  nat- 
ural resources  of  the  country  creates  wealth,  is  as  much 
a  business  man  as  the  man  who  goes  upon  the  board  of 
trade  and  bets  upon  the  price  of  grain;  the  miners  who 
ffo  down  a  thousand  feet  into  the  earth,  or  climb  two 
thousand  feet  upon  the  cliffs,  and  bring  forth  from  their 
hiding  places  the  precious  metals  to  be  poured  into  the 
channels  of  trade,  are  as  much  business  men  as  the  few 
financial  magnates  who,  in  a  back  room,  corner  the  money 
of  the  world.    We  come  to  speak  for  this  broader  class  of 
business  men-'* 


168  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

The  practical  worth  of  the  method  of  valuation  by 
the  use  of  the  Principle  of  Eeference  to  Experience  is 
self-evident.  It  eliminates  the  feeling  of  vagueness  and 
uncertainty  in  the  choice  of  material.  It  increases  di- 
rectness. It  saves  time.  It  furnishes  a  definite  standard 
b}^  which  the  value  of  arg-uments  can  be  tested,  with  the 
result  that  the  speaker  treats  of  essentials.  Incidentally, 
it  compels  a  broader  knowledge  of  men  and  things. 

(4)  A71  Effective  Method  of  Making  Outline.  The  Sub- 
Ideas  chosen,  it  is  well,  often,  in  order  to  give  them  their 
most  direct  significance  in  the  speech  outline,  to  prefix 
each  with  the  Central  Idea  thus : 

Statement  of  Aim.  The  Declaration  of  Independence 
is  great. 

Central  Idea.    Because  it  exercised  great  influence. 

DEVELOPMENT — SUE-IDEAS. 

It  exercised  great  influence: 

(a)  In  welding  the  Revolutionary  fathers  into  one 
united  aim. 

(b)  In  inspiring  self-sacrifice. 

(c)  In  preserving  the  nation  after  the  Revolution. 

(d)  In  inspiring  other  peoples  to  fight  for  liberty. 

(e)  In  keeping  the  rights  of  man  ever  present  to  hu- 
man eyes. 

By  this  method  the  speaker  will  be  forced  to  a  close 
unity  in  his  development.  Frequently,  also,  it  is  wise 
in  the  speech  itself  to  prefix  each  Sub-Idea  with  a  happy 
statement  of  the  Central  Idea,  thus  keeping  the  listener 
directly  upon  the  core  of  the  speech. 


THE  SUB-IDEAS  169 

(5)  Sub'Ideas  Must  Have  Interestingness.  In  choos- 
ing the  Sub-Ideas  the  same  careful  attention  must  be 
given  to  Interestingness  as  in  the  case  of  the  Cen- 
tral Idea.  Every  Sub-Idea  should  possess  in  itself  as 
many  of  the  Seven  Factors  as  possible.  Other  things 
equal,  that  Sub-Idea  which  has  the  greatest  interesting- 
ness is  the  most  effective. 

(6)  Action  and  the  Choice  of  Sub-Ideas.  Where  the 
End  is  Action  the  Sub-Ideas  must  be  chosen  always  with 
a  view  to  their  persuasive  power,  that  is,  they  must  have 
in  them  in  the  greatest  degree  practicable,  the  Impelling 
Motives  of  Self-Preservation,  Property,  Power,  Reputa- 
tion, Sentiments,  Affections,  Tastes.  Not  to  use  these 
when  possible  is  to  invite  defeat. 

(7)  Arrangement  of  Suh-Ideas.  The  Sub-Ideas 
chosen,  the  next  step  to  effectiveness  in  the  preparation 
of  a  speech  is  skill  in  the  arrangement.  In  the  main 
this  is  something  that  must  be  left  to  the  individual 
judgment.  The  governing  rule  is:  that  arrangement 
is  best  which  most  effectively  attains  the  desired  result. 
Two  things  must  be  kept  in  view — logical  order,  and  in- 
terestingness. Considered  alone,  a  logical  development 
i?  desirable ;  each  Sub-Idea  should  seem  to  grow  naturally 
out  of  the  preceding  one.  The  origin  of  a  thing  should 
usually  precede  a  discussion  of  its  functions,  and  this 
should  precede  a  discussion  of  its  consequences.  The 
Eulogy  will  naturally  treat  of  the  boy  before  the  man, 
the  military  career  of  Washington  precedes  his  states- 
manship, Bull  Run  comes  before  Gettysburg.  Where 
no  other  consideration  enters,  the  logical  order — cause 
and  effect,  order  of  time  and  place,  may  be  safely  fol- 
lowed. 


170  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

(8)  The  need  of  interestingness,  however,  sometimes 
modifies  the  logical  method.  It  is  self-evident  that  the 
attention  must  be  retained  until  the  purpose  of  the 
speech  is  achieved.  This  retention  of  interest  may  de- 
mand a  climacteric  growth — each  Sub-Idea  should  seem 
to  have  a  little  more  impressiveness  than  its  predecessor. 
Sometimes  this  may  be  obtained  without  destroy- 
ing the  logical  order,  but  frequen/tly  some  change  is 
necessary.  In  such  cases  care  must  be  taken  to  so  phrase 
the  connecting  link  that  no  jolt  is  experienced. 

/  (9)  When  great  opposition  exists,  the  absolute  need 
of  securing  the  good  will  of  the  listener  often  demands 
that  the  strongest  Sub-Idea  be  used  first,  as  only  in  that 
way  can  the  mind  be  made  receptive.  In  general,  it  may 
be  remarked  that  the  safe  course  is  to  follow  such  logical 
order  as  the  speaker  feels  will  seem  most  natural  to  the 
listener,  only  deviating  from  it  when  such  order  need- 
lessly prolongs  opposition  or  prevents  the  necessary  cumu- 
lative effect. 

(10).  Amplification  of  Suh-Ideas.  The  Sub-Ideas 
valued  and  arranged,  the  next  step  is  their  Amplification. 
Here  the  speaker  brings  to  bear  all  the  principles  and 
rules  set  forth  in  the  preceding  chapters.  He  will  ask 
himself  what  sub-divisions  there  should  be,  if  any,  of  his 
Sub-Ideas,  what  assertion  he  should  support,  what  are 
self-evident.  He  will  consider  carefully  the  kind  of  sup- 
port necessary — whether  Eestatement,  General  Illustra- 
tion, Specific  Instance,  Testimony,  and  whether  only  one 
Form  should  be  used  or  more  than  one — what,  in  fact, 
will  most  make  the  Sub-Ideas  bring  the  Central  Idea 
closest  to  the  listener's  life.     This  he  will  determine,  as 


THE  SUB-IDEAS  171 

already  shown,  by  a  careful  consideration  of  the  purpose 
of  tlie  speech  as  a  whole  (Statement  of  Aim),  whether 
the  end  is  Clearness,  Impressiveness,  and  so  on,  and  by 
a  test  of  the  value  of  the  various  forms  of  amplification 
in  accordance  with  their  functions  of  iteration,  scope, 
actuality  and  corroboration,  as  applied  to  the  particular 
case.  He  will  estimate  not  only  the  kind  but  the  degree 
of  support — how  much  is  adequate  to  meet  given  condi- 
tions. At  every  step  he  will  be  guided  by  the  Principle 
of  Reference  to  Experience. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

THE   IXTRODUCTION    AND  THE   CONCLUSION. 

(1)  When  a  speaker  appears  before  his  audience,  it 
may  be  as  a  stranger,  or  his  listeners  may  be  prejudiced 
against  him,  or  they  may  be  unacquainted  with  his  view 
of  the  proposed  subject,  or  they  may  be  opposed  to  it,  or 
believe  it  uninteresting.  Any  or  all  of  these  conditions 
may  exist  when  the  speaker  begins  to  speak.  These  pos- 
sibilities are  obstacles  to  his  success,  and  it  is  the  need 
of  overcoming  them  that  justifies  an  Introduction.  Com- 
mon sense  makes  clear  that  doubt  or  dislike  of  the 
speaker,  uncertainty,  prejudice  or  listlessness  in  respect 
to  his  topic,  are  barriers  that  must  be  removed.  Ill  will 
must  be  converted  into  good  will,  indifference  into  in- 
terest, before  success  can  crown  one's  aim.  Of  course, 
where  there  already  exists  good  will  and  interest  ade- 
quate to  the  purpose,  an  introduction  is  waste  of  effort. 
Otherwise,  it  is  essential. 

(8)  The  requisites  to  an  Introduction  may  be — Good 
Will  Toward  Speaker,  Statement  of  Purpose,  Good  Will 
Toward  Purpose,  Interest  in  Development. 

(3)  Good  Will  Towaid  Speaker.  Good  Will  Toward 
Speaker  implies  an  attitude  of  kindliness  or  sjTnpathy. 
The  audience  say  to  him,  in  effect,  "We  feel  pleasantly 
disposed  toward  you;  you  impress  us  as  one  whom  we 

179 


THE  INTRODUCTION  173 

would  like  as  a  friend.  You  have  our  best  wishes.  May 
no  mishap  befall  you.  Whether  we  shall  agree  or  dis- 
agree with  your  subject  matter,  we  certainly  have  no  ad- 
verse criticism  of  you,  yourself." 

(4)  This  Good  Will  Toward  Speaker  is  attained  by 
geniality,  self-respect,  modesty.  As  a  rule,  there  should 
be  a  pleasant  ring  to  one's  opening  sentences.  A  senti- 
ment of  sunshine  will  be  heartily  reciprocated.  Geniality 
begets  geniality.  Also  there  should  be  modesty.  Any 
manifestation  of  pretense,  conceit,  or  self-satisfaction  will 
instantly  arouse  ill-will.  On  the  other  hand,  a  simple, 
sincere  recognition  of  one's  shortcomings,  or  limitations, 
or  at  least,  an  appreciation  of  the  ability  of  others,  will 
win  golden  opinions.  Modesty,  however,  does  not  imply 
abasement.  Self-depreciation  must  never  go  beyond  self- 
respect.  There  must  be  nothing  abject.  The  manifesta- 
tion of  self-confidence  is  just  as  vital  as  the  absence  of 
over-confidence.  Those  are  respected  who  respect  them- 
selves. There  should  be  courage  of  conviction.  This 
causes  the  audience  to  feel  that  they  have  before  them  a 
speaker  who  is  master  of  his  task,  and,  therefore,  wins 
their  admiration,  and,  further,  pleases,  by  placing  them 
at  ease.  While  flattery  should  not  be  employed,  a  good 
introduction  will  usually  contain  some  sentiment  of  ap- 
preciation of  the  audience,  their  likes  and  dislikes.  A 
little  reflection  will  reveal  some  honest  compliment  that 
cannot  be  construed  as  an  attempt  to  curry  favor.  An 
excellent  example  of  the  attainment  of  Good  Will  To- 
ward Speaker  is  the  following  from  the  speech  of  Henry 
W.  Grady  (a  Southerner)  delivered  before  the  New  Eng- 
land Societv: 


174  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

"Mr.  President  and  Gentlemen:  There  was  a  South 
of  slavery  and  secession — that  South  is  dead.  There  is 
a  South  of  union  and  freedom — that  South,  thank  God, 
is  living,  breathing,  growing  every  hour.'  These  words, 
delivered  from  the  immortal  lips  of  Benjamin  F.  Hill, 
at  Tammany  Hall  in  1866,  true  then,  and  truer  now,  I 
shall  make  my  text  tonight. 

"Let  me  express  to  you  my  appreciation  of  the  kind- 
ness by  which  I  am  permitted  to  address  you.  I  make 
this  abrupt  acknowledgment  advisedly,  for  I  feel  that  if, 
when  I  raise  my  provincial  voice,  in  this  ancient  and 
august  presence,  I  could  find  courage  for  no  more  than 
the  opening  sentence,  it  would  be  well  if,  in  that  sentence, 
I  had  met  in  a  rough  sense  my  obligation  as  a  guest,  and 
had  perished,  so  to  speak,  with  courtesy  on  my  lips  and 
grace  in  my  heart.  Permitted  through  your  kindness  to 
catch  my  second  wind,  let  me  say  that  I  appreciate  the 
significance  of  being  the  first  Southerner  to  speak  at 
this  board,  which  bears  the  substance,  if  it  surpasses  the 
semblance,  of  the  original  New  England's  hospitality 
(applause)  and  honors  a  sentiment  that  in  turn  honors 
you,  but  which  in  my  personality  is  lost,  and  the  compli- 
ment to  my  people  made  plain." 

Here  the  speaker  shows  a  perfect  appreciation  of  con- 
ditions and  is  rewarded  by  the  unquestioned  good  will 
of  his  hearers.    His  method  was  geniality  and  modesty. 

(5)  The  Statement  of  Purpose.  The  second  requisite 
to  an  effective  Introduction  is  the  Statement  of  Pur- 
pose. The  speaker  must  state  clearly  what  he  wishes 
the  audience  to  see,  feel,  believe,  or  do.  If  this  End 
ie  Belief,  he  will  state  clearly  the  proposition  for  which 


THE    INTRODUCTION  175 

lie  ayka  acceptance;  if  Action,  he  will  make  plain  tlie 
specific  thing  he  wishes  done,  and  so  on.  The  audience, 
as  a  rule,  should  be  left  in  no  doubt  as  to  what  the 
speaker  desires  of  them.  This  declaration  of  intent  is 
equivalent  to  the  Statement  of  Aim,  and  often  it  may 
be  made  in  practicall}'  the  same  phraseology,  as,  "I  pro- 
pose to  speak  on  the  difference  between  substance  and 
show,  or  the  distinction  we  should  make  between  the 
facts  of  the  world  and  life,  and  the  causal  forces  which 
lie  behind  and  beneath  them." 

J.  B.  Gough,  in  his  lecture,  "Social  Responsibilities," 
states  his  purpose  thus: 

"The  subject  of  this  evening's  address,  as  you  all 
know,  is  'Social  Responsibilities.'  There  is  a  social  re- 
sponsibility that  is  recognized  by  society  everywhere.  The 
law  of  the  land  holds  men  responsible  for  the  loss  or 
injury  to  life  or  limb,  or  property  by  malice,  carelessness 
or  ignorance.  If  a  chemist  gives  poison,  instead  of  the 
right  prescription,  through  ignorance,  you  hold  him  re- 
sponsible for  the  results.  If  a  man  throws  a  stone  at 
a  passing  railway  train,  it  will  not  do  for  him  to  say,  'I 
did  not  think.'  It  is  every  man's  duty  to  think  what 
may  be  the  consequences  of  his  acts.  If  a  sentry  sleeps 
at  his  post,  and  owing  to  his  carelessness  and  want  of 
watchfulness,  mischief  ensues,  that  sentry  is  held  re- 
sponsible. I  might  go  on  to  illustrate  this  by  the  cases 
of  engineers,  or  lighthouse  keepers,  and  of  all  those  oc- 
cupying positions  in  which  their  carelessness  or  want  of 
thought  may  cause  harm  or  damage  to  others.  But 
there  is  a  social  responsibility  recognized  and  enforced 
by  the  higher  law  of  God — 'Thou  shalt  love  thy  neighbor 


17g  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

as  thyself.'  It  is  of  this  responsibility  that  I  would 
speak  more  particularly  tonight" 

(6)  Good  Will  Toward  Purpose.  The  next  requisite 
to  an  Effective  Introduction  is  the  attainment  of  Good 
Will  Toward  Purpose.  It  is  self-evident  that  a  speaker 
can  make  little  headway  as  long  as  the  proposition  or 
aim  is  viewed  with  prejudice.  Hostility  shuts  out  tolera- 
tion, and,  therefore,  in  some  way  the  listener  must  be 
won  over  to  a  fair-minded  consideration.  This  is  at- 
tained by  discovering  some  point  of  agreement.  This,  in 
turn,  is  found  in  the  Central  Idea.  Thus,  if  the  speaker's 
aim  is  to  win  votes  for  the  Eepublican  ticket,  he  may  tell 
his  hearers,  "If  I  can  show  you  that  the  success  of  thy 
Republican  party  means  a  more  general  and  equitable 
prosperity  than  will  come  from  the  success  of  any  other 
party,  then,  as  American  citizens,  you  will  agree  with  me 
that  your  duty  is  to  vote  for  that  party."  In  this  way 
the  speaker  meets  his  audience  on  common  ground — they 
all  seek  prosperity  and  they  are  willing  to  give  him  an 
opportunity  to  prove  his  contention. 

The  following,  from  J.  B.  Gordon's  lecture  on  "Last 
Days  of  the  Confederacy,"  illustrates  a  happy  attainment 
of  this  good  will  toward  the  matter  of  the  address  : 

"In  deciding  to  prepare  a  series  of  lectures,  you  will 
credit  me,  I  trust,  with  being  influenced  in  part,  at  least, 
by  other  and  higher  aims  than  mere  personal  considera- 
tions. If,  from  the  standpoint  of  a  Southern  soldier, 
I  could  suggest  certain  beneficent  results  of  our  sectional 
war;  or  if,  as  the  comrade  and  friend  of  Lee,  I  could 
add  any  new  facts  illustrative  of  the  character  of  Grant; 
or,  lastly,  if  I  could  aid  in  Lifting  to  a  higher  plane  the 


THE  INTRODUCTION  177 

popular  estimate  placed  by  victors  and  vanquished  upon 
their  countrymen  of  the  opposing  section,  and  thus 
strengthen  the  sentiment  of  national  fraternity  as  an 
essential  element  of  national  unity,  I  should  in  either 
event  secure  an  abundant  reward.*' 

(7)  Interest  in  Development.  Interest  in  Develop- 
ment means  a  desire  aroused  in  the  listener  to  know 
the  details  of  the  subject,  a  wish  to  hear  the  theme  am- 
plified— curiosity  as  to  what  will  be  said;  the  arguments, 
facts,  illustrations  to  be  used. 

(8)  The  need  of  arousing  interest  in  the  body  of  the 
speech  arises  from  the  psychic  law  that  concentration  by 
the  listener  is  requisite  to  impression,  and  that  the  greater 
the  concentration,  the  greater  the  vividness.  If  the  mind 
is  indifferent  as  to  what  is  to  follow,  such  lack  of  desire 
reduces  the  impressive  power  of  each  thought  to  its  own 
inherent  qualities.  If  our  subject  is  Shakespeare,  our  de- 
velopment will  be  heightened  in  interest  by  an  introduc- 
tion asserting  his  greatness,  for  the  greater  the  man,  the 
more  eager  we  are  to  hear  about  him.  Thus  Ingersoll 
is  justified  in  his  opening  remarks  in  his  lecture  on  Shake- 
speare: "William  Shakespeare  was  the  greatest  genius  of 
our  world.  He  left  to  us  the  richest  legacy  of  all  the 
dead — the  treasures  of  the  rarest  soul  that  ever  lived 
and  loved  and  wrought  of  words  the  statues,  pictures, 
robes  and  gems  of  thought." 

(9)  To  effectively  arouse  the  desire  to  listen,  the 
speaker  should  tise  one  or  more  of  the  Factors  of  Inter- 
estingness.  These  were  fully  discussed  in  the  chapter  on 
Entertainment.  If  the  development  is  to  present  matter 
that  is  vital  to  the  listener,  it  is  often  wise  to  mention 


178  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

that  fact.  Sometimes  the  Uncertain  is  of  great  use  in 
keying  desire  to  an  effective  pitch.  By  the  judicious 
handUng  of  this  factor,  curiosity  can  be  kept  alert  until 
the  end  of  the  speech.  A  powerful  use  of  the  Unusual 
is  found  in  the  first  words  of  Victor  Hugo  in  his  lecture 
on  Voltaire: 

"A  hundred  years  today  a  man  died.  He  died  im- 
mortal. He  departed  laden  with  years,  laden  with  works, 
laden  with  the  most  illustrious  and  the  most  fearful  of 
responsibilities,  the  responsibility  of  the  human  conscience 
informed  and  rectified.  He  went  cursed  and  blest,  cursed 
by  the  past  and  blest  by  the  future,  and  these  are  the 
two  superb  forms  of  glory.  On  his  death  bed,  he  had,  on 
the  one  hand,  the  acclaim  of  contemporaries  and  of  pos- 
terity; on  the  other  that  triumph  of  hooting  and  of  hate 
which  the  implacable  past  bestows  on  those  who  have 
combated  it.  He  was  more  than  a  man;  he  was  an  age. 
He  had  exercised  a  function  and  fulfilled  a  mission.  He 
had  evidently  been  chosen  for  the  work  which  he  had 
done  by  the  Supreme  Will,  which  manifests  itself  as  vis- 
ibly in  the  laws  of  destiny  as  in  the  laws  of  nature." 

Here  we  are  made  to  feel  that  we  are  to  be  told  about 
a  being  extraordinary. 

In  "The  Scattered  Nation"  the  lecturer  (Z.  Vance) 
arouses  our  intense  interest  in  the  development  of  his 
subject  by  citing,  in  a  general  way,  the  extraordinary 
achievements  of  the  Jewish  race: 

"The  Jew  is  beyond  doubt  the  most  remarkable  man 
of  this  world,  past  or  present.  Of  all  the  stories  of  the 
sons  of  men,  there  is  none  so  wild,  so  wonderful,  so  full 
of  extreme  mutation,  so  replete  with  suffering  and  horror, 


THE  INTRODUCTION  179 

•0  abounding  in  extraordinary  providences,  so  overflow- 
ing with  scenic  romance.  There  is  no  man  who  ap- 
proaches him  in  the  extent  and  character  of  the  influence 
which  he  has  exercised  over  tlie  human  family.  His 
history  is  the  history  of  our  civilization  and  progress  in 
this  world,  and  our  faith  and  our  hope  in  that  which  is 
to  come." 

Here  the  Factors  of  the  Unusual  and  the  Uncertain  are 
happily  used.  We  feel  the  development  will  be  about 
great  things  and  we  are  curious  as  to  what  these  things 
will  be. 

(10)  Reference  to  Experience  Governs  Introduction. 
The  general  law  governing  the  Introduction  is  that  of 
Eeference  to  Experience.  The  Good  Will  Toward 
Speaker  and  the  Good  Will  Toward  Purpose,  the  State- 
ment of  Purpose  and  Interest  in  Development  will  be 
effective  in  the  degree  that  they  are  made  to  come  closely 
into  listeners  experience.  Let  the  sentiment  of  modesty 
be  similar  to  the  listener's  idea  of  modesty,  state  the  terms 
of  the  proposition  in  language  that  comes  at  once  into  the 
listener's  knowledge,  and  heighten  the  desire  to  listen 
by  facts  that  tally  with  the  hstener's  idea  of  interesting- 
ness.  Conformity  to  tliis  principle  will  be  found  in  the 
examples  that  have  been  cited,  notably  that  from  J.  B. 
Gough. 

The  following  brief  example  realizes  excellently  all  the 
requisites  of  an  effective  Introduction : 

'^Ladies  and  Gentlemen:  I  am  to  speak  to  you  this 
evening,  without  any  pretense,  but  in  all  earnestness,  if 
I  may  do  so,  a  few  thoughts  on  a  subject  which  I  shall 
call  'The  Masters  of  the  Situation.'  and  as  example  is 


180  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

always  better  than  precept,  and  as  it  is  much  better  to 
go  and  do  a  thing  than  to  say  how  it  ought  to  be  done, 
I  shall  hope  to  interest  you  with  now  and  then  a  short 
story,  illustrative  of  my  theme,  rather  than  by  a  long 
sermon,  had  I  the  ability  to  preach  one." — J.  T.  Fields. 

(11)  The  Conclusion.  The  closing  words  of  a  speech 
are  called  the  Conclusion.  The  main  function  of  the  Con- 
clusion is  to  leave  upon  the  listener  the  impression  of 
completeness.  He  must  feel  that  what  was  sought  to 
be  shown,  impressed  or  demonstrated,  has  been  accom- 
plished. This  may  sometimes  be  best  achieved  by  a  rapid 
recapitulation  of  the  main  points. 

As  good  feeling  toward  a  speaker  and  bis  thought  is 
as  necessary  at  the  close  of  a  speech  as  at  the  beginning, 
any  ill  will  or  prejudice  that,  unwittingly,  may  have  been 
aroused,  should  be  removed  and  cordiality  be  established. 
This  can  be  attained  by  the  same  methods  of  modesty 
and  frank  appeal  as  required  in  the  Introduction.  A  well 
developed  speech,  however,  ought  to  leave  nothing  for  the 
conclusion  but  the  attainment  of  the  feeling  of  complete- 
ness. 


CHAPTER  XXI. 


ORATORICAL   STYLE, 


(1)  We  have  already  laid  down  the  basic  laws  which 
o-ovem  the  selection  of  material.  That  material  is  best 
which  comes  most  vividly  into  the  experience  of  the  audi' 
ence  in  the  briefest  time,  and  the  principles  governing 
this  vividness  have  been  also  stated.  The  kinds  of  ma- 
terial that  can  be  used  in  support  of  a  statement  have 
been  broadly  classified  under  Restatement,  General  Il- 
lustration, Specific  Instance  and  Testimony.  Under 
these  general  heads  we  find  certain  styles  of  expression  or 
methods  of  presentation  —  in  the  use  of  words,  phrases, 
clauses  and  sentences — ^which  have  more  or  less  individu- 
ality and  to  which  Rhetoric  has  given  names.  Such  of 
these  as  are  important  we  shall  discuss  briefly,  consider- 
ing them  from  the  point  of  view  of  Oratorical  Style. 

(2)  The  great  essential  in  Oratorical  Style  is  instant 
intelligibility.  As  elsewhere  pointed  out,  the  listener  must 
understand  the  speaker  as  quickly  as  the  words  are  ut- 
tered, or  lose  a  link  in  the  chain  of  thouglit.  The  listener 
cannot,  like  the  reader,  pause,  reflect,  leave  in  abeyance; 
he  dare  not  ask  the  speaker  to  pause  a  moment  or  other- 
wise interrupt  him.  He  must  understand  the  idea  then 
and  there,  or  it  is  gone  forever.     Therefore,  those  forms 

181 


188  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

of  expression  that  promote  instant  clearness  are  especially 
desirable  in  speaking.  Among  those  forms  are  Repetition 
and  Comparison. 

(3)  Another  essential  is  Vividness.  As  a  rule,  a  speaker 
has  only  a  short  and  arbitrary  time  in  which  to  attain  his 
purpose.  Therefore  the  listener  must  not  only  be  made 
to  feel,  but  made  to  feel  with  intensity  sufficient  to  keep 
the  idea  vividly  before  his  mind  for  the  requisite  time — 
an  hour,  a  week,  a  year.  This  demands  that  the  speaker 
make  use  of  those  forms  of  expression  that  have  this 
characteristic  of  intense  vividness,  notably  Climax,  Con- 
trast, Ridicule,  Epithet,  and  Interrogation. 

(4)  A  further  requisite  is  sustained  Interestingness. 
With  a  book  or  magazine  a  reader  may  lay  it  down  when 
he  feels  tired;  with  a  speech  the  listener  must  hear  it 
to  the  end.  This  condition  makes  the  need  of  interest- 
ingness imperative.  The  speaker  must  in  every  legitimate 
way  seek  to  retain  the  attention,  and  this  need  calls  upon 
him  for  freshness  and  originality  in  thought  and  in 
phrase. 

(5)  Repetition.  Eepetition,  as  a  form  or  Oratorical 
Style,  means  the  use,  more  than  once,  of  the  same  phrase 
in  the  same  sentence  or  paragraph,  as,  "that  a  little 
knowledge  is  a  dangerous  thing  is  a  saying  which  has  not 
got  currency  as  a  proverb  stamped  in  the  mint  of  Pope's 
versification — of  Pope,  who,  with  the  most  imperfect 
knowledge  of  Greek,  translated  Homer;  with  the  most 
imperfect  knowledge  of  the  Elizabethan  drama,  edited 
Shakespeare;  and  with  the  most  imperfect  knowledge  of 
philosophy,  wrote  the  Essay  on  Man." — (A.  J.  Balfour.) 
In  this  illustration  to  have  changed  the  phrase  "with  the 
most  imperfect  knowledge"  after  its  first  use  into,  say. 


ORATORICAL  STYLE  183 

"with  comparatively  little  familiarity  with,"  and  its  third 
use  into  "with  a  rather  insignificant  acquaintance  with," 
would  have  compelled  the  listener  to  make  three  separate 
translations  of  words  into  ideas  where  but  one  was 
necessary.  The  value  of  Repetition,  therefore,  lies  in  its 
power  to  reduce  to  a  minimum  the  labor  of  translating 
the  speaker's  words  into  the  thought,  and,  therefore  to 
increase  concentration  upon  the  essential  thing.  In  the 
degree  that  it  does  this  is  it  of  worth. 

(6)  Repetition  is  a  form  of  expression  that  is  born  of 
spontaneous  feeling  rather  than  of  art.  The  speaker  is 
moved  and  desires  earnestly  that  the  listener  shall  see 
and  feel  his  thought.  However,  a  little  deliberate  prac- 
tice in  this  form  of  expression  usually  increases  the 
speaker's  skill  and  judgment  in  its  use. 

Repetition  is  frequently  found  with  Climax,  Com- 
parison and  Contrast.  In  the  examples  that  follow  note 
how  any  change  from  Repetition  would  weaken  the  power. 

Example  I : 

"Advance,  then,  ye  future  generations !  We  welcome 
you  to  the  blessings  of  good  government  and  religious 
liberty.  We  welcome  you  to  the  treasuries  of  science  and 
the  delights  of  learning.  We  welcome  you  to  the  trans- 
cendent sweets  of  domestic  life,  to  happiness  of  kindred, 
parents  and  children.  We  welcome  you  to  the  immeasur- 
able blessing  of  national  existence,  the  immortal  hope  of 
Christianity  and  the  light  of  everlasting  truth." — Daniel 
Webster. 

Example  II : 

"Faith  in  machinery  is,  I  said,  our  besetting  danger; 
often  in  machinery  most  absurdly  disproportioned  to  the 


184  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

end  which  this  machinery,  if  it  is  to  do  any  good  at  all, 
is  to  serve;  but  always  in  machinery  as  if  it  had  a  value 
in  and  for  itself.  What  is  freedom  but  machinery  ?  What 
is  population  but  machinery?  What  is  coal  but  ma- 
chinery? What  are  even  religious  organizations  but 
machinery  ?" — Matthew  Arnold. 

Example  III: 

"Who  is  here  so  base  that  would  be  a  bondsman?  If 
any,  speak,  for  him  have  I  offended.  Who  is  here  so  rude 
that  would  not  be  a  Roman?  If  any,  speak,  for  him 
have  I  offended.  Who  is  here  so  vile  that  will  not  love  his 
country?  If  any,  speak,  for  him  have  I  offended." — 
Shakespeare  (Julius  Caesar). 

(7)  Ridicule.  Ridicule  seeks  to  make  some  idea  or 
thing  look  absurd.  It  holds  something  up  in  a  light 
which  provokes  derision  or  amusement.  Thus,  Robert 
Ingersoll,  seeking  to  disprove  the  assertion  that  Bacon 
wrote  the  plays  ascribed  to  Shakespeare,  ridicules  the 
learning  of  Bacon: 

"Lord  Bacon  was  not  only  a  philosopher,  but  he  was  a 
biologist,  as  appears  from  the  following: 

"  'As  for  living  creatures,  it  is  certain  that  their  vital 
spirits  are  a  substance  compounded  of  an  airy  and  flamy 
matter,'  and  'it  is  hard  to  cure  a  hurt  in  a  Frenchman's 
head,  but  easy  in  his  leg;  it  is  hard  to  cure  a  hurt  in  an 
Englishman's  leg,  but  easy  in  his  head.' " 

(8)  Ridicule  is  a  weapon  that  should  be  used  with 
great  caution.  It  is  justified  when  the  purpose  is  to  expose 
folly  or  wrong.  Nothing  will  so  quickly  hurl  a  false  god 
from  its  pedestal  as  the  shaft  of  ridicule.  It  makes  the 
pompous  a  butt  of  laughter  and   wins  jeers  for  hoary 


ORATORICAL  STYLE  185 

headed  privilege.    The  faults  of  individuals  and  of  society 
are  often  most  quickly  corrected  by  its  use. 

(9)  Skill  in  Ridicule  is  inherent  rather  than  acquired. 
Always  one  must  himself  feel  the  absurdity  of  a  thing 
in  order  to  make  it  absurd  to  others.  Therefore,  the 
speaker  who  proposes  to  use  Ridicule  should  ponder  deeply 
on  the  ridiculous  aspect,  and  expression  will  follow. 

(10)  Ridicule,  like  all  other  forms  of  argument  and 
expression,  will  be  moet  effective  when  it  comes  most 
vividly  into  the  experience  of  the  listener.  The  example 
from  Ingersoll  excellently  illustrates  this. 

(11)  OriginaliUj  in  Thought  and  Expression.  Origin- 
ality in  Thought  and  Expression  means  a  departure  from 
the  beaten  track,  an  avoidance  of  convention,  a  mani- 
festation of  individuality  with  freshness.  It  presents  an 
idea  not  heard  every  day  and  in  a  new  way.  Thus,  in 
the  statement  ''there  is  a  considerable  period  in  every 
man's  life  when  the  best  thing  he  can  do  is  to  let  his 
mind  soak  and  tan  in  the  vats  of  literature,"  the  speaker 
(Charles  F.  Adams)  gives  us  both  originality  in  thought 
and  expression.  An  excellent  example  of  this  freshness 
of  idea  and  presentation  is  the  following  from  a  speech 
by  Edward  Everett  on  "Vegetable  and  Mineral  Gold." 

"Drop  a  grain  of  California  gold  into  the  ground,  and 
there  it  will  lie  until  the  end  of  time,  the  clods  on  which 
it  falls  not  more  cold  and  lifeless.  Drop  a  grain  of  our 
gold,  of  our  blessed  gold,  into  the  ground,  and  lo!  a 
jpystery.  In  a  few  days  it  softens,  it  swells,  it  shoots 
upwards,  it  is  a  living  thing.  It  is  yellow  itself,  but  it 
sends  up  a  delicate  spire  which  comes  peeping,  emerald 
green,  through  the  soil;  it  expands  to  a  vigorous  stalk; 


185  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

revels  in  the  air  and  sunshine ;  arrays  itself,  more  glorious 
than  Solomon,  in  its  broad,  fluttering,  leafy  robes,  whose 
sound,  as  the  west  wind  whispers  through  them,  falls  as 
pleasantly  on  the  husbandman's  ears  as  the  rustle  of  his 
sweetheart's  garments;  still  towers  aloft,  spins  its  verdant 
skeins  of  vegetable  floss,  displays  its  dancing  tassels,  sur- 
charged with  fertilizing  dust,  and  at  last  ripens  into  two 
or  three  magnificent  batons  like  this  [an  ear  of  Indian 
corn],  each  of  which  is  studded  with  hundreds  of  grains 
of  gold,  every  one  possessing  the  same  wonderful  prop- 
erties as  the  parent  grain,  every  one  instinct  with  the 
same  marvelous  reproductive  powers.  There  are  720 
grains  on  the  ear  which  I  hold  in  my  hand.  I  presume 
there  were  two  or  three  such  ears  on  the  stalk.  This 
would  give  us  one  thousand  four  hundred  and  forty,  per- 
haps two  thousand  one  hundred  and  sixty  grains,  as  the 
product  of  one.  They  would  yield  next  season,  if  they 
were  all  successfully  planted,  four  thousand  two  hundred, 
perhaps  six  thousand  three  hundred  ears.  Who  does  not 
see  that,  with  this  stupendous  progression,  the  produce 
of  one  grain  in  a  few  years  might  feed  all  mankind! 
And  yet,  with  this  visible  creation,  annually  springing 
and  ripening  around  us,  there  are  men  who  doubt,  who 
deny  the  existence  of  God!  Gold  from  the  Sacramento 
river,  sir!  There  is  a  sacrament  in  this  ear  of  corn 
enough  to  bring  an  atheist  to  his  knees." 

Another  excellent  example  that  may  be  cited  is  that  of 
James  Russell  Lowell,  in  his  lecture  on  "Democracy": 

"Truth,  after  all,  wears  a  different  face  to  everybody, 
and  it  would  be  too  tedious  to  wait  till  all  were  agreed. 
She  is  said  to  lie  at  the  bottom  of  a  well,  for  the  very 
iMeon,  perhaps,  that  whoever  looks  down  in  search  of 


ORATORICAL  STYLE  187 

her  seen  his  own  image  at  the  bottom,  and  is  persuaded 
not  only  that  he  has  seen  the  goddess,  but  that  she  is  far 
better  looking  than  he  had  imagined." 

(12)  Sometimes  the  originality  may  be  in  the  thought 
alone,  as,  "the  best  method  of  guarding  against  the 
danger  of  reading  what  is  useless  is  to  read  only  what  is 
interesting." — A.  J.  Balfour. 

Again : 

"To  transmit  personality  is  the  secret  of  literature,  as 
surely  as  the  transmission  of  force  is  the  mainspring  of 
the  universe.  It  is  also  the  secret  of  religion.  To  ask 
how  it  is  done  is  to  break  your  heart.  Genius  can  do  it 
sometimes,  but  what  cannot  genius  do?  Talent  fails 
oftener  than  it  succeeds.  Mere  sincerity  of  purpose  is 
of  no  good  at  all,  unless  accompanied  by  the  rare  gift 
of  personal  expression.  A  rascal  like  Benvenuto  Cellini, 
or  Casanova,  an  oddity  like  Borrow,  is  more  likely  to 
possess  this  gift  than  a  saint;  and  this  is  why  it  is  so 
much  to  be  regretted  that  we  have  fewer  biographies  of 
avowed  rogues  than  of  professed  saints." — Augustine 
Birrell. 

(13)  Again,  the  freshness  may  be  only  in  the  phrasing, 
as:  "He  (Lowell)  listened  not  for  the  roar  of  the  ma- 
jority in  the  street,  but  for  the  still  small  voice  in  his 
own  heart,"  and,  "Then  the  war  of  the  Rebellion  came, 
and  swept  me  out  of  a  lawyer's  office  into  a  cavalr}'  sad- 
dle."—C.  J.  Adams. 

And: 

"I  have  doomed  people  and  seen  others  doom  them,  over 
and  over  again,  on  the  strength  of  physical  signs,  and 
they   have   lived   in    the    most   contumacious   and    scien- 


188  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

tifically  unjustifiable  manner  as  long  as  they  liked 

People   will   insist    on   living   sometimes,   though   mani- 
festly moribund." — Oliver  Wendell  Holmes. 

(14)  Originality  in  Thought  and  Expression  is  almost 
wholly  due  to  temperament.  It  springs  out  of  the  nature 
of  the  speaker  spurred  by  the  occasion.  Nevertheless  the 
power  can  be  quickened  and  made  more  skillful  by 
(a)  the  attitude  of  mind,  (b)  naturalness,  (c)  practice. 
A  speaker  should  realize  how  difficult  it  is  to  keep  the 
listener  interested,  and  how  wearisome  and  anno}dng  it 
is  to  be  compelled  to  hear  a  succession  of  commonplace 
thoughts  and  commonplace  expressions.  Let  him  go  into 
his  own  experience  and  recall  how  he,  himself,  has  felt 
when  he  has  been  forced  to  listen  to  an  hour  of  triteness. 
This  process  will  create  a  disgust  for  the  stale  and  a 
strong  desire  for  originality. 

(15)  As  originality  is  linked  with  individuality,  the 
more  a  speaker  is  himself,  the  more  likely  will  he  attain 
freshness  in  style.  But  he  must  be  himself  at  his  best— 
when  all  his  mental  powers  are  alert.  He  must  also  give 
to  his  subject  an  examination  and  reflection  that  is  sin- 
cere and  thorough,  turning  it  over  and  over  until  it 
becomes  part  of  him;  then  it  will  have  individual  flavor. 

(16)  Practice  aids  originality.  Make  it  a  rule  never 
to  be  a  mere  echo,  but  always  to  present  at  least  some 
aspect  that  has  the  stamp  of  your  own  reflection,  or,  if  it 
must  have  the  same  aspect,  to  present  it  in  a  new  way. 
Thus,  the  thought  may  come  to  you  that  "we  often  suffer 
undeservedly  the  effect  of  causes  which  did  not  originate 
with  us  and  for  which  we  are  not  responsible."  We 
reflect,  and  there  comes  to  us  as  an  illustration  of  this 


ORATORICAL  STYLE  189 

fact,  the  disease  of  the  gout.  In  this  complaint  the  third 
generation  often  suffers  from  the  misdeeds  of  the  first. 
We  want  now  to  present  this  in  an  interesting  way,  with 
originality.  We  turn  the  thought  over  and  over  with 
this  end  in  view,  and  finally  express  our  thought  thus : 

"There  are  men  who  reap  consequences  without  having 
the  advantage  of  the  causes  that  brought  them  about. 
For  instance,  it  takes  the  gout  a  good  long  time  to  grow 
into  a  family,  but  it  does  grow,  and  it  often  grows  from 
a  good  cellar  of  port  in  the  possession  of  an  ancestor. 
Now,  what  I  do  think  hard  is  that  a  man  should  have 
the  port  without  having  the  gout,  and  what  I  think  more 
tragic  still  is  that  another  man  should  have  the  gout 
without  having  had  the  port." — George  Dawson. 
V  (17)  Contrast.  Contrast  deals  with  opposites.  It 
places  the  black  against  the  white,  the  good  against  the 
evil,  as,  "Washington  thought  only  of  his  country,  Napo- 
leon thought  only  of  himself," 

(18)  The  effect  of  contrast  is  to  m.ake  the  things  con- 
trasted more  vivid,  and  therefore  its  use  is  justified  when- 
ever the  speaker  seeks  to  make  his  thought  particularly 
impressive.  In  the  following  the  attributes  of  Cromwell 
are  made  strikingly  conspicuous  by  the  happy  use  of 
Contrast : 

"Contrast  him  (Cromwell)  with  Louis  XIV,  a  con- 
temporaneous despot:  Cromwell  devoted  all  his  energies 
to  develop  the  resources  of  his  country,  while  Louis  did 
what  he  could  to  waste  them;  Cromwell's  reign  was 
favorable  to  the  development  of  individual  genius,  but 
Louis  was  such  an  intolerable  egotist  that  at  the  close 
of  his  reign  all  the  great  lights  had  disappeared ;  Crom- 


190  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

well  was  tolerant,  Louis  was  persecuting;  Cromwell  laid 
the  foundations  of  an  indefinite  expansion,  Louis  sowed 
the  seeds  of  discontent  and  revolution.  Both,  indeed, 
took  the  sword,  the  one  to  dethrone  the  Stuarts,  the 
other  to  exterminate  tlie  Protestants.  Cromwell  be- 
queathed to  successors  the  moral  force  of  personal  virtue^ 
Louis  paved  the  way  for  the  most  disgraceful  excesses; 
Cromwell  spent  his  leisure  hours  with  his  family  and 
with  divines,  Louis  with  his  favorites  and  mistresses; 
Cromwell  would  listen  to  expostulations,  Louis  crushed 
all  who  differed  from  him.  The  career  of  the  former  was 
a  progressive  rise,  that  of  the  latter  a  progressive  fall." — 
John  Lord. 

Substitute  here  any  other  method  for  that  of  Contrast 
and  we  at  once  see  loss  of  power.  Similarly  with  the 
following : 

"Contrast  now  the  circumstances  of  your  life  and  mine, 
gently  and  with  temper,  Aeschines;  and  then  ask  these 
people  whose  fortune  each  of  them  prefers.  You  taught 
reading,  I  went  to  school;  you  performed  initiations,  I 
received  them.  You  danced  in  the  chorus,  I  furnished  it. 
You  were  assembly  clerk,  I  was  speaker.  You  acted 
third  parts,  I  heard  you.  You  broke  down,  and  I  hissed. 
You  have  worked  as  a  statesman  for  the  enemy,  I  for 
my  country." — Demosthenes  "On  the  Crown." 

(19)  Sometimes  an  idea  is  best  emphasized  by  a  con- 
trast of  a  whole  paragraph  with  the  one  succeeding : 

"A  little  while  ago  I  stood  at  the  grave  of  Napoleon — 
a  magnificent  tomb  of  gilt  and  gold,  fit  almost  for  a 
deity,  dead,  and  gazed  upon  the  sarcophagus  of  rare  and 
nameless  marble,  where  rests,  at  last,  the  ashes  of  that 


ORATORICAL  STYLE  191 

restless  man.  I  leaned  over  tlie  balustrade,  and  thought 
about  the  career  of  the  greatest  soldier  of  the  modern 
world.  T  saw  him  walking  upon  the  banks  of  the  Seine, 
contemplating  suicide;  I  saw  him  at  Toulon;  I  saw  him 
putting  down  the  mob  on  the  streets  of  Paris;  I  saw 
him  at  the  head  of  the  army  of  Italy;  I  saw  him  crossing 
the  bridge  at  Lodi,  with  the  tricolor  in  his  hand;  I  saw 
him  in  Egypt  in  the  shadows  of  the  Pyramids;  I  saw 
him  conquer  the  Alps  and  mingle  the  eagle  of  France 
with  the  eagles  of  the  crags;  I  saw  him  at  Marengo,  at 
Ulm,  at  Austerlitz.  I  saw  him  in  Eussia,  when  the  in- 
fantry of  the  snows  and  the  cavalry  of  the  wild  beasts 
scattered  his  legions  like  winter's  witliered  leaves.  I  saw 
him  at  Leipsic  in  defeat  and  disaster,  driven  back  upon 
Paris  before  a  million  bayonets ;  plucked  like  a  wild  beast, 
banished  to  Elba.  I  saw  him  on  the  frightful  field  of 
AYaterloo,  where  chance  and  fate  combined  to  wreck  the 
fortunes  of  their  former  king.  And  I  saw  him  at  lonely 
St.  Helena,  with  his  hands  crossed  behind  him,  looking 
out  upon  the  sad  and  solemn  sea. 

"And  I  thought  of  the  widows  and  orphans  he  had 
made ;  of  the  tears  that  had  been  shed  for  his  glory,  and 
of  the  only  woman  who  ever  loved  him,  pushed  from  his 
heart  by  the  cold  hand  of  ambition.  And  I  said  I  would 
rather  have  been  a  French  peasant,  and  worn  wooden 
shoes.  I  would  rather  have  lived  in  a  hut,  with  a  vine 
growing  over  the  door  and  the  grapes  gi-owing  purple  in 
the  amorous  kisses  of  the  autumn  sun.  I  would  rather 
have  been  that  poor  peasant,  with  my  wife  by  my  side 
knitting  as  the  day  died  out  of  the  sky,  with  my  children 
upon  my  knees  and  their  arms  about  me.    I  would  rather 


192  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

have  been  this  man  and  gone  down  to  the  tongueless 
silence  of  the  dreamless  dust,  than  to  have  been  the 
imperial  personation  of  force  and  murder  known  as  Na- 
poleon the  Great." — Kobert  Ingersoll. 

(20)  Sometimes  Contrast  may  be  used  to  produce  a 
humorous  effect : 

"As  you  cross  the  English  channel,  the  last  thing  you 
see  is  the  En^-Ush  soldier  with  his  blue  trousers  and  red 
coat,  and  the  first  thing  you  see  on  landing  in  France  is 
the  French  soldier  with  his  red  trousers  and  blue  coat, 
and  you  come  to  the  conclusion  that  if  you  turn  an 
English  soldier  upside  down  he  is,  uniformly  speaking,  a 
Frenchman." — Horace  Porter. 

./(21)  Comparison.  Comparison  deals  with  liJces.  As 
its  name  implies,  it  compares,  as,  "Cromwell  never  saw 
a  soldier  till  he  was  forty,  Toussaint  never  saw  a  soldier 
till  he  was  fifty."  Comparison  makes  clear  to  the  listener 
the  relative  value  of  things  compared,  and  its  use,  there- 
fore, is  warranted  whenever  the  speaker's  aim  is  to  show 
the  comparative  worth  or  standing  of  a  thing,  or  to  give 
it  definiteness.  In  the  following  Comparison  is  very 
happily  used: 

"The  whole  life  of  the  Christian  Endeavor  movement 
is  contained  between  the  little  span  of  years  indicated  by 
Hie  hyphen  between  the  dates  February  2,  1881-February 
2,  1906,  and  does  not  cover  half  the  years  of  many  of 
us  who  can  scarcely  yet  believe  that  we  are  not  young 
men.  Here  are  a  few  facts  which  make  these  dates  sig- 
nificant : 

"February  2,   1881 — One  society  with  forty  membera. 


ORATOEICAL  STYLE  193 

"February  3,  1906 — Over  sixty-seven  thousand  soci- 
eties, with  nearly  four  millions  of  members. 

"February  2,  1881 — One  nation  and  one  language  rep- 
resented in  the  society. 

"February  2,  1906 — Over  fifty  nations  or  large  colonial 
dependencies  and  eighty  languages  represented. 

"February  2,  1881 — The  only  literature  a  draft  copy 
of  the  constitution. 

"February  2,  1906 — Forty  weekly  or  monthly  publica- 
tions in  fifteen  different  languages  exclusively  devoted  to 
the  Society,  weekly  or  monthly  Christian  Endeavor  de- 
partments in  several  thousand  papers  and  magazine?,  and 
abundant  other  literature  in  most  of  the  chief  languages 
of  the  world. 

"February  2,  1881 — One  denomination  represented. 

"February  2.  1906 — One  hundred  denominations  rep- 
resented."— Francis  E.  Clark. 
^  (22)  The  Distinction  between  Comparison  and  Con' 
trast.  The  difference  between  Comparison  and  Contrast 
is  self-evident.  As  already  stated,  one  deals  with  likes, 
the  other  with  opposites.  Contrast  emphasizes  the  ele- 
ments or  characteristics  of  a  thing,  Comparison  shows  the 
relative  place  of  those  elements  or  characteristics.  The 
office  of  Contrast  is  mainly  to  achieve  vividness,  of  Com- 
parison to  achieve  clearness.  Yet  both  can  be  used  to 
attain  impressivencss.  Thus,  to  show  the  greatness  of 
Washington  it  might  be  well,  first,  to  contrast  him  and 
his  achievements  with  tho?e  of  Napoleon,  Caesar  or 
Alexander,  these  men  being  his  opposites  in  their  impell- 
ing motives  and  in  the  consequences  of  their  deeds.  Hav- 
ing thus  made  vivid  the  essentials  of  his  greatness,  these 


294  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

might  now  be  compared  with  those  of  some  other  un- 
selfish patriot  of  note,  with  whose  achievements  the  lis* 
tener  is  familiar.  In  this  way  we  not  only  see  his 
greatness  but  the  magnitude  of  it. 

(23)  As  in  all  other  departments  of  structure  the 
power  of  Comparison  and  Contrast  will  be  increased  in 
the  degree  that  they  come  vividly  into  the  listener's  ex- 
perience. The  more  clearly  the  things  contrasted  and 
compared  come  into  the  listener's  life,  the  more  effective 
will  be  the  result. 

(24)  Climax.  Climax  is  that  form  of  utterance  which, 
as  it  progresses,  exhibits  increasing  importance  or  in- 
tensity (a)  in  the  thought,  as,  "He  called  me  a  liar,  a 
thief,  a  murderer,"  or,  (b)  in  the  emotional  attitude  to- 
ward the  thought,  as,  "If  I  were  an  American  as  I  am 
an  Englishman,  and  a  foreign  troop  were  landed  in  my 
country,  I  would  never  lay  down  my  arms,  o^eveo*! 
Never !    Never !" 

(25)  Man  is  so  constituted  that  sameness  palls.  Of  a 
succession  of  blows  of  equal  force,  the  last  will  seem 
weaker  than  the  first.  Therefore,  ideas  to  be  most  effec- 
tive must  be  presented  usually  in  the  order  of  their  rela- 
tive importance.  Reverse  the  order  of  the  phrases  in  the 
following  Climax  and  note  how  the  force  of  the  passage 
would  be  lost: 

"His  (Coleridge's)  voice  rolled  on  the  ear  like  the 
pealing  organ,  and  its  sound  alone  was  the  music  of 
thought.  His  mind  was  clothed  with  wings;  and  raised 
on  them,  he  lifted  philosophy  to  Heaven.  In  his  descrip- 
tions you  then  saw  the  progress  of  human  happiness  and 
liberty  in  bright  and  never  ending  succession,  like  the 


ORATORICAL  STYLE  195 

steps  of  Jacob's  ladder,  with  airy  shapes  ascending  and 
descending,  and  with  the  voice  of  God  at  the  top  of  the 
ladder."— William    Hazlitt. 

(26)  Climax  may  be  Perfect,  Imperfect,  Suspended. 
A  Perfect  Climax  is  one  where  the  gradation  is  steadily 
and  perceptibly  upward,  as,  "He  was  great  as  a  la^vye^,  as 
a  statesman,  as  a  man." 

(27)  An  Imperfect  Climax  is  one  where  the  gradation 
is  irregular,  as: 

"But  the  prolific,  unconquered  (Irish)  race  rose  from 
its  carcasses  and  ashes,  survived  the  butcheries  of  Eliza- 
beth and  Cromwell,  the  perfidy  of  William,  the  banish- 
ment or  murder  of  their  leaders,  the  awful  agony  of 
penal  terms,  the  ruin  or  plunder  of  their  last  chapel,  and 
the  loss  of  their  last  acre  of  land,  ever  resisting  as  best 
they  could,  till  they  lived  at  last  to  see  the  Victor  at 
Waterloo  surrender  to  O'Connell." — Patrick   Collins. 

Here  butcheries  and  murders  are  more  important  than 
plunder  of  chapels  and  loss  of  land.  This  form  is  some- 
times preferable  to  the  Perfect  where  the  impression  of 
spontaneity  is  paramount. 

(28)  A  Suspended  Climax  is  one  in  which  the  mind 
w  held  in  suspense  for  the  final  assertion,  the  impressive- 
ness  of  which  is  thus  increased,  as: 

"If  you  put  him  to  base  labor,  if  you  bind  his  thoughts, 
if  you  blind  his  eyes,  if  you  blunt  his  hopes,  if  you  steal 
his  joys,  if  you  stunt  liis  body,  and  blast  his  soul,  and 
at  last  leave  him  not  so  much  as  strength  to  reap  the 
poor  fruit  of  his  degradation,  but  gather  that  for  your- 
self, and  dismiss  him  to  the  grave,  when  you  have  done 
with  him,  having,  so  far  as  in  you  lay,  made  the  walls 


196  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

of  that  grave  everlasting  (though,  indeed,  I  fancy  the 
goodly  bricks  of  some  of  our  family  vaults  will  hold 
closer  in  the  resurrection  day  than  the  sod  over  the 
laborer's  head),  this  you  think  is  no  waste  and  no  sin  I" — 
John  Euskin. 

Here  the  weight  of  detail  makes  the  Climax  too  involved, 
and  the  power  is  weakened.  Such  Suspended  Climax 
should  be  avoided.  The  following,  while  longer,  is  less 
weighty  in  its  detail,  and,  therefore,  is  more  effective: 

"While  Queen  Elizabeth  was  coaxing  herself  to  say 
the  most  fatal  yes  that  ever  woman  said;  when  Burleigh, 
Leicester,  Walsingham,  all  the  safe,  sound,  conservative 
old  gentlemen  and  counsellors,  were  just  ceasing  to  dis- 
suade her,  Philip  Sidney,  a  youth  of  twenty-five,  who 
knew  that  he  had  a  country  as  well  as  a  queen,  .  .  . 
who  did  not  believe  that  he  could  write  gravely  of  sober 
things,  because  he  had  written  gayly  of  ladies'  eyebrows, 
knowing,  as  the  true  hearted  gentleman  always  knows, 
that  today  it  may  be  a  man's  turn  to  sit  at  a  desk  in  an 
office,  or  bend  over  a  book  in  college,  or  fashion  a  shoe 
horse  at  the  forge,  or  toss  flowers  to  some  beauty  at  her 
window,  and  tomorrow  to  stand  firm  against  a  cruel 
church  or  a  despotic  court,  a  brutal  snob  or  an  ignorant 
public  opinion — this  youth,  this  immortal  gentleman, 
wrote  the  letter  which  dissuaded  her  from  the  marriage." 
— George  Curtis. 

(29)  Humor  is  sometimes  best  attained  by  the  use 
of  Climax,  as:  "Sufficient  unto  the  day  is  one  baby.  As 
long  as  you  are  in  your  right  mind  don't  pray  for  twins. 
Twins  amount  to  a  permanent  riot;  and  there  ain't  any 
iPfil  difference  between  triplets  and  insurrection."^ — Mark 
Twain. 


OEATOBICAL  STYLE  197 

(30)  Sometimes  a  Double  Climax  proves  very  effec- 
tive, as: 

"For,  behold,  when  the  hundred  years  were  over  and  the 
new  American  Republic  appeared  upon  the  stage,  its  dec- 
laration of  independence  contained  the  same  sentiments, 
and  many  of  the  same  phrases,  translated  from  that  good 
old  Dutch  of  that  older  declaration  of  independence  of  the 
Union  of  Utrecht  two  hundred  years  before,  and  the 
Federal  Constitution  of  the  new  republic  took  as  its 
guide  and  model  the  constitution  of  that  older  republic 
across  the  sea.  And  lo  and  behold !  when  the  standard 
of  the  new  republic  was  raised  to  the  flagstaff,  the  red, 
white  and  blue  of  the  flag  of  the  United  States  of  the 
Netherlands  were  the  only  colors  in  the  flag  of  the 
United  States  of  America." — T.  G.  Bergen. 

Here  the  first  sentence  is  a  Climax  and  alone  would  be 
quite  effective.  The  second  sentence  comes  as  a  pleasing 
surprise  carrying  the  listener  one  step  higher, 

(31)  Climax  in  its  various  forms  has  been  a  great 
power.  It  has  given  literature  some  of  its  most  beautiful 
gems,  and  in  oratory  the  great  speeches  glow  with  bursts 
of  feeling  in  climateric  form.  Patrick  Henry  used  it 
with  telling  effect  in  his  pleas  for  independence,  Chatham 
in  his  attacks  on  the  British  Ministry,  Webster  in  his 
Reply  to  Hayne.  The  apostle  Paul  found  occasion  for  it. 
When  great  thoughts  have  stirred  men's  minds  their  feel- 
ing has  found  vent  in  Climax. 

(32)  Sl-ill  in  Climax.  Climax  is  attained  by  Inten- 
sity of  Feeling  and  by  Perception  of  its  Nature.  Deep 
emotion  in  respect  to  some  thought  will  often  spontane- 
ously express  itself  in  Climax.     Earnest  reflection,  there- 


i98  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

fore,  is  often  the  key  to  success  in  this  form  of  expres- 
sion. Skill  is  further  developed  by  a  clear  understanding 
of  the  structure  of  a  climax.  It  is  usually  built  up  of 
details  of  some  inclusive  thought,  as,  "he  was  loyal  tc 
everybody."  Here  "everybody"  gives  us  family,  friends, 
countrymen,  God.  Arranging  these  in  the  order  of  theii 
importance  objectively,  vee  have  the  CUmax:  "He  was 
loyal  to  his  family,  loyal  to  his  friends,  loyal  to  his  coun- 
trymen, loyal  to  his  God." 

The  Suspended  form  of  Climax  needs  simply  the  pre- 
fix "if,"  "when,"  etc.,  attached  to  the  clauses  preceding 
the  final  statement.  Thus  the  thought,  "If  material  dis- 
coveries and  happenings  cause  profound  effects,  why 
should  not  moral  and  spiritual  discoveries  cause  them?" 
To  secure  a  Suspended  Climax  here  it  requires  simply 
that  some  of  the  terms  be  resolved  into  particulars,  gen- 
eral or  specific,  and  each  prefixed  by  an  "if,"  thus:  "If 
an  astronomer  shall  swoon,  and  a  Newton  sink  overpow- 
ered by  the  discovery  of  some  of  the  laws  by  which  the 
Deity  governs  the  material  world;  if  Pope  Leo  should 
sink  through  joy  at  the  triumph  of  his  army,  and  a 
patriot  die  at  the  triumph  of  his  country;  if  the  unex- 
pected inheritance  of  a  chest  of  gold  or  the  restoration 
of  rank  and  estate  should  destroy  the  action  of  the  vital 
organs,  what  shall  be  said  of  him  on  whose  vision  should 
burst  the  revelation  of  the  laws  of  the  Deity  in  the  moral 
world?" 

(33)  Climax  should  be  used  sparingly,  and  then,  of 
course,  only  when  it  becomes  the  theme  and  the  speaker. 
This  will  be  when  the  subject  is  one  that  arouses  emotion 
and  when  the  speaker  is  expressionally  free. 


ORATORICAL  STYLE  199 

(34)  Epithet.  Epithet  for  purposes  of  speech  making 
may  be  defined  as  a  term  or  phrase  which  accentuates 
strikingly  some  characteristic,  real  or  alleged,  of  a  person 
or  thing,  as,  "tlie  iron  duke,"  "the  grand  old  man";  or 
which  emphasizes  some  happening  or  achievement,  as, 
"one-speech  Hamilton,"  "Thomas,  the  Rock  of  Chicka- 
mauga."  An  epithet  may  be  either  a  term  of  praise,  as 
*'the  peerless  leader,"  or  a  term  of  reproach  or  ridicule, 
as  *Hwice-defeatcd  candidate,"  "roundheads." 

(35)  The  power  of  epithet  is  sometimes  great.  It  has 
elected  many  a  candidate  to  office  and  defeated  many  a 
candidate;  has  carried  through  many  a  political  measure 
and  caused  many  a  proposed  enactment  to  be  repudiated. 
Through  their  entire  lives  men  have  had  to  carry  the 
Btigma  attached  to  them  by  a  well  timed  and  well  phrased 
epithet,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  to  its  judicious  use  many 
owe  their  enduring  fame. 

(36)  Skill  in  the  use  of  Epithet  depends  upon  a  keen 
appreciation  of  the  knowledge  and  opinion  of  the  audi- 
ence in  respect  to  the  person  or  thing  to  which  the 
epithet  is  applied,  or,  in  some  cases,  upon  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  details.  There  is  usually  some  attribute 
or  feat  which  the  listener  will  be  willing  to  accept  as  rep- 
resentative or  indicative  of  the  whole,  and  the  business 
of  the  speaker  is  to  compress  this  attribute  or  feat  into 
a  word  or  phrase  that  will  appeal  to  the  listener  strik- 
ingly. This  will  be  a  phrase  or  term  that  has  in  it 
Reference  to  Experience. 

(37)  Infcrrogaiion.  Interrogation  as  a  form  of  ora- 
torical st3'le  is  expressed  in  the  form  of  a  question,  as, 
"Shall  fraud  be  counteracted  by  fraud?  Is  a  promise 
never  to  be  kept?" — Fenelon.     The  power  of  Interroga- 


200  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

tion  lies  in  its  directness.  It  comee  to  each  auditor  as  a 
personal  matter.  He  feels  he  must  give  it  individual 
attention.  Also,  the  pause,  incidental  to  this  form  of 
utterance,  gives  longer  time  for  contemplation.  Inter- 
rogation has  been  used  with  effect  by  all  the  great  orators, 
notably  Demosthenes,  Cicero  and  Chatham.  A  speaker 
should  plan  his  speech  so  that  he  can  introduce  it  nat- 
urally. It  will  break  the  monotony  of  his  delivery  and 
arouse  increased  attention.     Example: 

"Are  fleets  and  armies  necessary  to  a  work  of  love  and 
reconciliation?  Have  we  shown  ourselves  so  unwilling 
to  be  reconciled  that  force  must  be  called  in  to  win  back 
our  love?  Let  us  not  deceive  ourselves,  sir.  These  are 
the  implements  of  war  and  subjugation;  the  last  argu- 
ments to  which  kings  resort.  I  ask,  gentlemen,  sir,  what 
means  this  martial  array,  if  its  purpose  be  not  to  force 
us  into  submission?  Can  gentlemen  assign  any  other 
possible  motive  for  it?  Has  Great  Britain  any  enemy, 
in  this  quarter  of  the  world,  to  call  for  all  this  accumu- 
lation of  navies  and  armies?  No,  sir,  she  has  none." — 
Patrick  Henry, 

It  will  be  perceived  that  to  change  the  Interrogation 
here  into  direct  assertion  would  weaken  the  force  of  the 
argument. 

(38)  llie  Forms  of  Support  and  Oratorical  Style. 
Where  variety  of  choice  is  possible  the  method  of  deter- 
mining whether  Repetition,  Climax,  Comparison,  Con- 
trast shall  be  in  the  form  of  Restatement,  General  Illus- 
tration, Specific  Instance  or  Testimony,  or  a  combination 
of  these,  will  be  based  on  the  principles  set  forth  in  the 
chapters  dealing  with  these  forms.     If  in  a  given  time 


ORATORICAL  STYLE  201 

Climax  developed  by  General  Illustration  will  come  more 
vividly  into  the  experience  of  audience  than  Climax  de- 
veloped by  Specific  Instance,  the  former  will  be  used, 
and  vice  versa,  or,  if  the  two  combined  achieve  the  end 
most  quickly,  then  the  combination  will  be  the  choice. 
Similarly  with  the  other  forms.  Oratorical  Style  is  sub- 
ject to  the  laws  of  Reference  to  Expeiience  and  Cumula- 
tion as  applied  to  the  Four  Forms  of  Support. 


'W 


CHAPTER  XXII. 

SELF-QUESTIONING. 

(1)  Essential  to  success  in  speaking  is  skill  in  the 
acquisition  of  material.  This  is  dependent  upon  two 
great  powers:   Effective   Thinking,  Effective  Reading. 

(2)  Thinking  Should  Precede  Reading.  Schopenhauer 
gave  wise  counsel  when  he  stated  that  whenever  a  subject 
comes  within  the  scope  of  a  person's  observation  or  read- 
ing, no  matter  how  little,  he  should  invariably  question 
himself  first,  and  refer  to  authorities  later.  Richter  hap- 
pily said:  "Think  yourself  empty,  then  read  yourself 
full."  No  speaking  can  have  much  value  that  has  not 
the  stamp  of  the  speaker's  individuality,  and  this  indi- 
viduality will  show  itself  best  where  the  speaker  has  first 
done  his  own  thinking.  It  matters  not  how  little  this 
self-inquiry  may  discover,  the  very  act  itself  is  of  ines- 
timable benefit  in  giving  character  and  originality  to 
one's  utterances.  Further,  it  is  the  greatest  of  all  aids 
to  concentration.  Only  by  first  pondering  over  a  topic, 
examining  it  in  its  various  aspects,  weighing,  making 
comparisons,  can  the  mind  attain  that  singleness  of  aim 
so  necessary  to  an  effective  presentation.  In  the  process 
of  self-questioning  the  mind  becomes,  as  it  were,  polarized 
in  respect  to  the  subject  under  investigation.     The  whole 

202 


SELF-QUESTIONING  203 

being  becomes  alert  to  the  pro  and  con  of  the  question 
and  observations  and  happenings  that  before  had  no  sig- 
nificance are  now  seen,  with  the  sharpened  sense,  to  have 
pointed  relation  to  the  subject.  Everything  seems  to  pass 
in  review  for  the  sole  purpose  of  offering  negative  or 
affirmative  evidence  on  your  particular  question.  He, 
then,  who  would  speak  well,  should  submit  himself  to 
the  severest  self-questioning. 

(3)  Query  Helps.  As  this  self-interrogation  is  slow 
and  tedious  with  the  unpracticed  thinker,  let  him  invent 
a  series  of  interrogatories  that  force  from  him  quickly 
and  with  directness  the  ideas  that  he  may  have  upon  the 
subject.  Foremost  among  such  a  series  should  be  the 
"what?":  What  do  the  words  or  terms  of  my  subject 
or  proposition  mean?  What  do  they  indicate?  What 
do  they  include  ?  What  exclude  ?  A  thorough  and  honest 
answering  of  this  question  goes  to  the  very  core  of  the 
subject.  It  lays  bare  its  details  and  shows  its  scope. 
The  "what?"  well  answered  is  often  the  truth  made 
clear.  With  the  proposition,  "Eesolved,  that  a  Protective 
Tariff  in  the  United  States  is  desirable,"  the  proper  ap- 
plication of  the  "what?"  demands  that  the  terms  "Pro- 
tective Tariff,"  "United  States,"  and  "desirable"  be  sub- 
jected to  a  searching  analysis  as  to  their  precise  meaning. 
They  must,  if  possible,  be  resolved  into  their  elements, 
the  aim  being  to  reduce  the  subject  to  its  clearest  aspect. 
Applying  tlie  "what?"  to  "Protective  Tariff,"  we  get: 
the  imposition  of  duties  on  (i.  e.,  increasing  the  cost  of) 
certain  foreign  articles  if  imported,  for  the  purpose  of 
protecting  and  encouraging  home  production.  Applying 
the  "what?"  to  United  States,  we  get:  a  country  of  over 


304  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

eighty  millions  of  people,  with  a  great  variety  of  climates, 
soils  and  resources,  with  excellent  transportation  facili- 
ties, vast  capital,  and  with  great  energy  in  its  people. 
Apply  the  "what?"  to  "desirable,"  we  get:  increased  pros- 
perity. The  "what?"  has  already  resolved  the  question 
into  a  much  clearer  proposition : 

Eesolved,  that  in  a  country  of  over  eighty  millions  of 
people,  with  a  great  variety  of  climates,  soils  and  re- 
sources, with  excellent  transportation  facilities,  vast  cap- 
ital, and  great  energy  in  its  people,  the  imposition  of 
duties  on  certain  foreign  articles  (for  the  purpose  of 
protecting  and  encouraging  their  home  production)  re- 
sults in   increased  prosperity. 

A  severer  application  of  the  "what?"  permits  of  still 
further  clearness,  such  as  a  close  scrutiny  of  the  protective 
tariffs  that  have  existed  in  the  United  States,  the  specific 
articles  taxed,  and  the  amount  of  such  taxation. 

The  proposition  itself  made  clear,  the  further  enquiry 
as  to  one's  own  knowledge  of  the  subject  is  materially 
aided  by  answering  the  simple  queries: 

Why? 

How? 

Where  ? 

When? 

Who? 
Some  subjects  answer  more  satisfactorily  to  the  queries : 

Origin? 

Nature  ? 

Functions  or  Purpose? 

Requisites  to  Efficiency? 

Feasibility  ? 

Effects  or  Results? 


SELF-QUESTIONING  205 

Where  a  minute  and  exhaustive  analysis  is  desixed,  an 
excellent  series  of  questions  to  put  to  one's  self  is : 

Spiritually? 

Morally  ? 

Intellectually  ? 

Aesthetically  ? 

Physically  ? 

Historically? 

Geographically? 

Scientifically? 

Industrially  ? 

Commercially? 

Financially  ? 

Economically  ? 

Politically? 

Legally  ? 

Militarily? 

Internationally  ? 

Vocationally? 

Socially? 

Eecreationally? 

Domestically  ? 

Comparatively? 
Such  questions  as  "The  Trusts,''  "Prohibition,"  yield 
very  fruitfully  to  this  last  series.  For  example,  applying 
these  queries  to  the  term  "Socialism,"  the  speaker  finds 
himself  compelled  to  answer  the  questions :  What  does 
Socialism  mean  in  respect  to  religion  (Spiritually)  ;  what 
does  it  mean  in  respect  to  right  and  wrong,  crime  aad 
criminals,  etc.  (Morally)  ;  what  does  it  mean  in  respect  to 
education,   scholarship,   schools   and   colleges    (Intellectu- 


206  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

ally) ;  what  in  regard  to  the  arts  (Aesthetically) ;  what  is 
its  significance  in  respect  to  work  and  wages  (Industri- 
ally) ;  to  trade  and  prices  (Commercially) ;  and  so  on  with 
every  queyy.  In  this  way  the  scope  of  the  question  has 
been  made  clear.  He  has  obtained,  rapidly,  a  view  of  its 
various  aspects,  a  comprehensive  insight  which  otherwise 
might  never  have  been  gained.  Further,  it  has  resulted 
in  original  ideas. 

While  it  is  true  that  thoughts  will  come  without  such 
series  of  queries  as  the  preceding,  it  is  equally  true  that 
they  take  much  longer  to  come  and  are  fewer  in  number, 
and  often  not  nearly  so  valuable.  If  breadth  and  thor- 
oughness are  desired,  some  such  series  as  these  must  be 
devised. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 

READING. 

(1)  The  query  process  having  given,  as  it  were,  a 
bird's-eye  view  of  the  entire  subject,  and  having  aroused 
curiosity  and  desire  for  enlightenment,  the  mind  is  now 
ready  for  specific  reading  and  inquiry.  With  keen  inter- 
est it  pounces  upon  every  fact  that  will  answer  the  many 
problems  and  questions  to  which  the  use  of  the  Queries 
have  given  birth. 

(2)  Acquire  the  Habit  of  Comparison  and  Inference. 
The  effectiveness  of  one's  reading  may  be  materially  in- 
creased by  the  observance  of  a  few  rules.  First,  make  it 
a  habit  to  compare  and  infer.  See  things  not  as  isolated 
objects  or  happenings,  but  as  links  in  the  chain  of  cause 
and  effect.  Everything  helps  to  show  or  prove  some  other 
thing.  Riot  shows  disregard  for  law,  widespread  poverty 
shows  social  maladjustment,  and  so  on.  And  make  com- 
parisons. One  magazine  is  more  popular  than  another. 
Why?  The  negro  is  treated  differently  in  different  locali- 
ties. Why?  In  what  lies  the  superiority  of  the  public 
school  over  the  private  school,  or  vice  versa?  All  things 
of  any  worth  should  be  compared  and  their  relative  value 
estimated.  Out  of  this  comparison  comes  real,  practical 
knowledge.  And  by  this  process,  and  that  of  inference, 
the  mind  is  trained.     Almost   unconsciously  the  matter 

207 


208  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

of  the  book  or  article  becomes  sifted,  tested,  generalized 
and  related  to  other  matter,  and  one's  real  culture  is  thus 
increased.  When  reading  for  a  specific  speech,  the  habit 
results  in  both  rapid  and  useful  selection  of  material. 
Facts,  data,  arguments,  receive  a  true  estimate  of  their 
worth  and  pertinency,  and  the  likelihood  of  success  is 
correspondingly  increased. 

(3)  Differentiate  Assertions.  Another  aid  to  efficient 
reading  is  a  clear  perception  of  the  nature  of  assertions. 
An  assertion  is  either  self-evident  or  not  self-evident. 
A  self-evident  assertion  is  one  that  tallies  with  one's  own 
knowledge  or  belief.  All  assertions  that  are  contrary  to 
one's  own  experience  demand  adequate  proof.  Unless  so 
supported,  they  should  be  rejected. 

(4)  Further,  carefulhj  distinguish  a  supported  asser- 
tion from  its  support.  This  done,  the  reader  can  fix  the 
main  assertion  in  his  mind  and  connote,  as  incidental 
proof,  the  Eestatement,  General  Illustration,  Specific  In- 
stance or  Testimony  used  as  amplification.  This  method 
enables  the  reader  to  go  through  material  rapidly  and  yet 
assimilate  all  that  is  vital. 

(5)  Acquire  Illustrative  Material.  As  explained  in  a 
preceding  chapter,  the  speaker  should  polarize  his  mind  for 
facts  that  may  prove  or  illustrate  his  opinions.  Carefully 
distinguish  between  fact  and  fiction.  For  purposes  of 
conviction,  a  story  born  of  the  writer's  imagination  has 
little  permanent  value  in  comparison  with  one  that  is  true. 
Thus,  a  story  of  the  New  York  tenement  district  that  is 
imaginary  is  not  nearly  so  valuable  as  an  account  of  the 
tenement  people  by  one  who  has  long  lived  among  them. 
Not  only  give  precedence  to  facts,  but  select  only  such 


READING  209 

facts,  serious,  humorous,  statistical,  as  can  be  used  to 
illustrate  or  prove  something,  facts  that  appeal  to  com- 
mon experience.  Further,  associate  them  in  the  mind 
with  the  one  or  more  general  truths  or  points  they  illus- 
trate. Thus,  the  following  statement  of  facts  may  be 
associated  in  tlie  mind  with  the  general  truth  tliat  (a) 
conditions  are  not  what  they  should  be,  or  (b)  some 
unique  social  conditions  exist,  and  so  on: 

"One-half  the  residents  of  New  York  do  not  know  how 
the  other  half  lives.  How  many  know  that  in  hot  weather 
thousands  sleep  habitually  on  fire  escapes,  because  their 
rooms  are  uninhabitable;  that,  last  summer,  night  after 
night,  multitudes  of  persons  thronged  the  streets  and 
fought  in  mobs  for  the  mere  privilege  of  having  streams 
of  water  played  upon  them  by  members  of  the  fire  depart- 
ment? Or  the  queer  places  in  which  people  live;  how 
m.any  know  that  some  of  the  great  office  buildings  have 
under  them  apartments  for  fifty  families,  and  that  in  these 
families  children  are  sometimes  born  blind,  because  their 
mothers  for  whole  years  never  see  daylight;  or  that,  on 
the  roofs  of  the  same  there  are  families  of  "janitors" 
whose  six-year-old  children  have  never  stepped  upon  the 
ground  ?' — David  Steele. 

(6)  To  make  permanent  the  association  of  a  fact  with 
the  point  it  supports  or  illustrates,  the  illustration  should 
be  related  two  or  three  times  aloud,  each  time  using  it  in 
connection  with  the  point  or  points  it  supports.  Find  at 
once  two  or  three  legitimate  opportunities  to  so  use  it.  If 
this  is  impossible,  then  tell  it  aloud  three  different  times 
to  an  imaginary  audience.  This  connecting  of  the  point 
with   the   illustration   is    invaluable.     If   well   done,   the 


210  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

knowledge  is  mentally  indexed  and  is  ready  on  the  instant 
to  support  the  general  statement  or  to  do  other  service. 

(7)  As  a  help  to  the  acquisition  of  valuable  material  it 
is  a  good  plan  to  go  over  each  day's  experience,  select  the 
useful,  and  definitely  associate  the  experience  with  the 
general  statement  it  illustrates.  One  should  also  sub- 
scribe for  a  few  representative  and  reliable  periodicals, 
and  when  reading  them  have  a  special  regard  for  facts 
that  vividly  support  one's  contentions. 

(8)  Humorous  Stories.  Humorous  stories  have  their 
place.  Here,  also,  prefer  the  story  that  is  true  and  the 
story  that  comes  closest  to  universal  experience.  The  fol- 
lowing is  given  by  Eli  Perkins  (Melville  D.  Landon)  as 
a  fact.  It  can  be  used  to  illustrate,  among  other  things, 
the  general  caution  (a)  be  slow  to  congratulate  yourself, 
or  (b)  things  are  not  always  what  they  seem : 

"One  day  a  young  gentleman  came  to  me  on  the  Boston 
&  Maine  train,  and,  smiling  and  bowing,  politely  asked 
me  if  I  was  the  gentleman  who  delivered  the  lecture 
before  the  Portsmouth  Y.  M.  C.  A.  the  night  before, 

"'I  am,'  I  replied. 

"  'Well,  I  want  to  thank  you  for  it.  I  don't  know  when 
I  ever  enjoyed  myself  more  than  when  you  were  talking.' 

"  'You  are  very  complimentary,"  said  I,  blushing  to  the 
ears,  'very  complimentary.  I  am  glad  my  humble  effort 
was  worthy  of  your  praise/  and  1  took  the  young  man 
warmly  by  the  hand. 

"  *Yes,'  continued  the  young  man,  'it  gave  me  immense 
pleasure.  You  see,  I  am  engaged  to  a  Portsmouth  girl, 
and  her  three  sisters  all  went,  and  I  had  my  girl  in  tha 
parlor  all  to  myself.    0,  it  was  a  happy  night,  the  night 


READING  211 

you  lectured  in  Portsmouth !    When  are  you  going  to  lec- 
ture there  again  ?' " 

(9)  In  fixing  the  illustrative  material  in  the  mind,  one 
should  go  through  the  illustration  carefully  and  select 
only  that  which  is  indispensable.  The  dress  of  the 
thought  should  be  his  own.  Let  him  ask  himself :  "What 
is  there  in  this  illustration  that  I  must  absolutely  retain, 
and  what  can  be  properly  left  for  my  own  phrasing?" 
An  excellent  method  is  to  underline  the  essential  part  of 
an  illustration  and  focus  the  mind  on  that.  Wherever 
consistent  with  truth,  the  speaker  should  aim  to  be  free 
and  creative. 

(10)  Memory.  Effective  Eeading  demands  a  good 
memory.  A  good  memory  is  one  that  acquires  data  easily 
and  readily  reproduces  it.  Many  fortunes  have  been  made 
out  of  systems  of  memory,  but  actual  experience  proves 
that  there  is  no  royal  road.  The  power  to  acquire,  retain 
and  reproduce  knowledge  is  based  on  natural  laws,  and 
when  these  laws  are  observed,  or  the  conditions  they  de- 
mand naturally  exist,  an  excellent  memory  is  the  result. 
A  good  memory  finds  its  basis  in  health;  with  rare  excep- 
tions the  brain  that  is  nourished  by  good,  red  blood  will 
have  the  best  memory.  Memory  and  mental  vitality  go 
hand  in  hand.  Therefore  a  good  memory  demnnds  fresh 
air  and  exercise.  Further,  a  good  memory  demands  atten^ 
Hon  —  a  complete  and  absolute  concentration  upon  the 
thought  or  thing  to  be  retained.  Sometimes  the  condi- 
tions naturally  produce  this  state.  Wliere  not,  the  mem- 
orizer  must  try  to  feel  deeply  the  importance  of  his  talk. 
He  will  say  to  himself:  "This  fact  is  of  value  to  me.  I 
need  it.     It  will  help  me  greatly.     It  will  increase  my 


212  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

power.     Without  it  I  will  fail.     I  must  have  it.     I  will 
have  it." 

(11)  Further,  a  good  memory  is  developed  by  making 
retention  a  daily  habit.  Select  for  each  day  a  five  or  ten 
minute  task,  made  up  of  useful  quotations,  illustrations 
or  facts,  choose  an  appropriate  and  regular  time,  and 
make  it  a  Mede  and  Persian  law  that  nothing  shall  in- 
terfere. 

(12)  Memory  is  also  aided  by  seizing  upon  the  essential 
of  the  thing  to  be  memorized.  If  it  is  a  quotation,  seize 
upon  the  thought  itself,  then  upon  the  pivotal  words,  usu- 
ally the  verb  and  noun. 

(13)  Repetition  is  an  excellent  aid  to  recollection. 
After  the  first  concentration  upon  the  thought,  rest,  try 
to  recollect,  then  again  concentrate.  Next  day  try  to 
repeat.  If  the  memory  fails,  again  concentrate,  and  so  on 
until  recollection  is  instant. 

(14)  Association  helps  the  memory.  Association  may 
be  by  likes,  as,  for  instance,  attaching  the  unmemorized 
fact  that  Gibbon  published  his  second  volume  of  the 
"Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Eoman  Empire"  in  1776,  to  the 
memorized  fact  that  1776  is  the  date  of  the  American 
Declaration  of  Independence.  Association  may  be  by 
order  of  time  and  place,  as  explained  in  the  chapter  on 
General  Illustration.  Thus,  Association  by  place:  Chi- 
cago, New  York,  San  Francisco,  Denver,  could  best  be 
fixed  in  the  average  mind  by  the  order  of  contiguity.  New 
York,  Chicago,  Denver,  San  Francisco.  Association  by 
time:  Napoleon,  Grant,  Alexander,  Caesar,  arranged, 
Alexander,  Caesar,  Napoleon,  Grant.  Association  may  be 
by    order   of    sequence.     Details    of   a   storm    would    be 


READING  213 

effectively  remembered  in  this  way:  storm,  flood,  damage, 
repairs. 

(15)  The  habit  of  Retelling  greatly  strengthens  the 
memory.  When  a  fact  presents  itself  worthy  of  retention, 
seek  immediately  for  some  legitimate  opportunity  to  use 
it  in  your  conversation  or  in  speech.  If  no  such  oppor- 
tunity presents  itself,  tell  it  to  an  imaginary  listener. 

(16)  Reading  aloud  helps  retention.  In  this  way  two 
senses,  sight  and  hearing,  are  called  into  service,  resulting 
in  a,  deeper  impression. 

(17)  Practically  everyone  has  his  own  way  of  mem- 
orizing, and  the  suggestions  here  are  for  such  as  find  their 
present  method  inadequate. 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 

THE  AFTER-DINNER  SPEECH. 

(1)  The  essentials  of  the  After-Dinner  Speech  are 
timeliness,  geniality,  originality. 

(2)  The  speech  must  be  timely.  It  must  fit  the  occa- 
sion and  the  guests.  It  must  seem  to  grow  naturally  out 
of  the  environment.  If  the  occasion  is  essentially  a  mili- 
tary one,  the  speech  should  have  a  military  atmosphere, 
if  a  legal  occasion,  it  should  evidence  an  appreciation  of 
that  fact.  The  more  an  After-Dinner  speech  realizes  the 
distinctive  characteristics  of  the  occasion  the  greater  will 
be  its  success. 

(3)  The  After-Dinner  speech  must  be  genial.  It  must 
strike  the  note  of  good  fellowship.  The  more  the  speech 
seems  to  have  the  spontaneity  of  the  informal  dinner  gath- 
ering of  kindred  spirits,  the  greater  wiU  be  the  effect.  It 
should  breathe  kindliness  and  good  will.  It  is  not  a  time 
for  irony,  satire,  and  denunciation,  but  good  natured  rail- 
lery, genial  commendation  and  congratulation. 

(4)  Originality  is  another  essential.  If  possible,  there 
should  be  a  freshness  and  novelty  in  the  thought  and  its 
expression.  Some  new  way  of  looking  at  a  topic  or  some 
oriainal  wav  of  Dresentin^  i±. 

y6)  While,  with  rare  exceptions,  the  post  prandial  oc- 

214 


THE  AFTER-DINNER  SPEECH  215 

casion  is  not  a  time  to  preach  or  be  didactic,  nevertheless 
one's  speech  should  not  be  trivial.  Mingled  with  the 
humor  and  good  nature  there  should  be  common  sense 
and  a  thought  worth  taking  home.  Sometimes  a  Central 
Idea  may  be  chosen,  but,  as  a  rule,  its  development  should 
be  comparatively  free.  Anecdote  and  illustration,  es- 
pecially the  humorous,  may  be  liberally  used,  but  care 
must  be  taken  not  to  make  the  speech  a  mere  jumble  of 
"funny"  stories. 

(6)  As  the  purpose  of  the  After-Dinner  speech  is  usu- 
ally Entertainment,  the  speaker  will  make  it  a  point  to 
use,  to  the  best  advantage,  the  Factors  of  Interestingness. 

(7)  The  questions  which  the  After-Dinner  speaker 
should  put  to  himself  in  the  preparation  of  his  speech 
may  be  stated  as  follows : 

1.  What  is  the  purpose,  if  any,  of  the  dinner? 

2.  Who  will  be  there? 

3.  Who  else  speaks,  and  on  what? 

4.  How  long  am  I  expected  to  talk? 

5.  What  thought  or  thoughts  will  most  help  toward 
the  success  of  the  occasion? 

6.  What  can  I  say  that  will  be  original,  interesting, 
genial,  and  at  the  same  time  appropriate  ? 

(8)  As  an  example  of  a  splendid  realization  of  the 
essentials  of  the  After-Dinner  speech,  the  following  ad- 
dress by  Mark  Twain  is  given.  Note  how  timely  his 
remarksf  how  they  breathe  the  military  spirit  of  the  occa- 
sion in  thought  and  phrase ;  note  the  geniality  that  pre- 
vails throughout,  and  the  originality,  and  note  that  a 
Central  Idea  is  maintained   (a  baby  amounts  to  some- 


216  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

thing)  which  has  in  it  a  homely  truth.    Observe,  also,  the 
happy  Eeferences  to  Experience,  and  the  graceful  close: 

THE  BABIES. 

(Speech  of  Samuel  L.  Clemens  (Mark  Twain)  at  a  banquet 
given  by  the  Army  of  the  Tennessee  at  Chicago,  111.,  November 
13,  1877,  in  honor  of  General  Grant  on  his  return  from  his  trip 
around  the  world.  Mark  Twain  responded  to  the  toast,  "The 
Babies;  as  they  comfort  us  in  our  sorrows,  let  us  not  forget 
them  in  our  festivities.") 

Mr.  Chairman  and  Gentlemen:  "The  Babies."  Now,  that's 
something  like.  We  haven't  all  had  the  good  fortune  to  be 
ladies;  we  have  not  all  been  generals,  or  poets,  or  statesmen; 
but  when  the  toast  works  down  to  the  babies,  we  stand  on  com- 
mon ground — for  we've  all  been  babies.  (Laughter.)  It  is  a 
shame  that  for  a  thousand  years  the  world's  banquets  have 
utterly  ignored  the  baby,  as  if  he  didn't  amount  to  anything! 
If  you,  gentlemen,  will  stop  and  think  a  minute — if  you  will 
go  back  fifty  or  a  hundred  years,  to  your  early  married  life, 
and  recontemplate  your  first  baby — you  will  remember  that  he 
amounted  to  a  good  deal — and  even  something  over.  (Laugh- 
ter.) 

You  soldiers  all  know  that  when  that  little  fellow  arrived 
at  family  headquarters,  you  had  to  hand  in  your  resignation. 
He  took  entire  command.  You  became  his  lackey,  his  mere 
bodyguard;  and  you  had  to  stand  around.  He  was  not  a  com- 
mander who  made  allowance  for  the  time,  distance,  weather, 
or  anything  else.  You  had  to  execute  his  order  whether  it 
was  possible  or  not.  And  there  was  only  one  form  of  march- 
ing in  his  manual  of  tactics,  and  that  was  the  double-quick. 
(Laughter.)  He  treated  you  with  every  sort  of  insolence  and 
disrespect,  and  the  bravest  of  you  did  not  dare  to  say  a  word. 
Ydu  could  face  the  death-storm  of  Donelson  and  Vicksburg,  and 
give  back  blow  for  blow,  but  when  he  clawed  your  whiskers 
and  pulled  your  hair,  and  twisted  your  nose,  you  had  to  take 
it.  (Laughter.)  When  the  thunders  of  war  sounded  in  your 
ears,  you  set  your  faces  towards  the  batteries  and  advanced 
with  steady  tread;  but  when  he  turned  on  the  terrors  of  his 
war-whoop  (laughter)  you  advanced  in — the  other  direction,  and 


THE  AFTER-DINNER  SPEECH  217 

mighty  glad  of  the  chance,  too.  When  he  called  for  soothing 
Byrup,  did  you  venture  to  throw  out  any  remarks  about  certain 
services  unbecoming  to  an  officer  and  a  gentleman?  No;  you  got 
up  and  got  it!  If  he  ordered  his  pap  bottle,  and  it  wasn't 
warm,  did  you  talk  back?  Not  you;  you  went  to  work  and 
warmed  it.  You  even  descended  so  far  in  your  menial  office 
as  to  tako  a  suck  at  that  warm,  insipid  stuff  yourself,  to  see 
if  it  w^s  right! — three  parts  water  to  one  of  milk,  a  touch  of 
sugar  to  modify  the  colic,  and  a  drop  of  peppermint  to  kill  those 
immortal  hiccoughs.  I  can  taste  that  stuff  yet!  (Laughter.) 
And  how  many  things  you  learned  as  you  went  along!  Senti- 
mental young  folks  still  take  stock  in  that  beautiful  old  saying, 
that  when  baby  smiles  in  his  sleep  it  is  because  the  angels  are 
whispering  to  him.  "Very  pretty,  but  "too  thin" —  simply  wind 
on  the  stomach,  my  friends.  (Laughter.)  If  the  baby  proposed 
to  take  a  walk  at  his  usual  hour — half-past  two  in  the  morn- 
ing— didn't  you  rise  up  promptly  and  remark  (with  a  mental 
attitude  which  wouldn't  improve  a  Sunday  school  much)  that 
that  was  the  very  thing  you  were  about  to  propose  yourself? 
Oh,  you  were  under  good  discipline.  And  so  you  went  fluttering 
up  and  down  the  room  in  your  "undress  uniform"  (laughter); 
you  not  only  prattled  undignified  baby-talk,  but  even  tuned 
up  your  martial  voices  and  tried  to  sing  "Rock-a-Bye  Baby  on 
the  Tree-top,"  for  instance.  What  a  spectacle  for  an  Army  of 
the  Tennessee!  And  what  an  affliction  for  the  neighbors,  too, 
for  it  isn't  everybody  within  a  mile  around  that  likes  military 
music  at  three  o'clock  in  the  morning.  (Laughter.)  And  when 
you  had  been  keeping  this  thing  up  two  or  three  hours,  and  your 
little  velvet-head  intimated  that  nothing  suited  him  like  exer- 
cise and  noise,  and  proposed  to  fight  it  out  on  that  line  if  it 
took  all  night— "Go  on."  What  did  you  do?  You  simply 
went  on  till  you  dropped  in  the  last  ditch!     (Laughter.) 

I  like  the  idea  that  a  baby  doesn't  amount  to  anythingl 
Why,  one  baby  is  just  a  house  and  a  front  yard  full  by  itself; 
one  baby  can  furnish  more  business  than  you  and  your  whole 
interior  department  can  attend  to;  ho  is  enterprising,  irrepres- 
sible, brimful  of  lawless  activities.  Do  what  you  please  you 
can't  make  him  stay  on  the  reservation.  Sufficient  unto  the 
day  is  ono  baby.  As  long  as  you  are  in  youT  right  mind  don't 
ever  pray  for  twins.     Twins  amount  to  a  permanent  riot;  and 


218  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

there  ain't  any  real  difference  between  triplets  and  insurrec- 
tions.    (Great  laughter.) 

Among  the  three  or  four  million  cradles  now  rocking  in  the 
land  there  are  some  which  this  nation  would  preserve  for  ages 
as  sacred  things,  if  we  could  know  which  ones  they  are.  For 
in  one  of  these  cradles  the  unconscious  Farragut  of  the  future 
is  at  this  moment  teething.  Think  of  it!  and  putting  a  word  of 
dead  earnest,  unarticulated,  but  justifiable,  profanity  over  it, 
too;  in  another,  the  future  renowned  astronomer  is  blinking  at 
the  shining  Milky  Way  with  but  a  languid  interest,  poor  little 
chap,  and  wondering  what  has  become  of  that  other  one  they 
call  the  wet-nurse;  in  another,  the  future  great  historian  is 
lying,  and  doubtless  he  will  continue  to  lie  until  his  earthly  mis- 
sion is  ended;  in  another,  the  future  president  is  busying  him- 
self with  no  profounder  problem  of  state  than  what  the  mischief 
has  become  of  his  hair  so  early  (laughter) ;  and  in  a  mighty 
array  of  other  cradles  there  are  now  some  sixty  thousand  fu- 
ture office-seekers  getting  ready  to  furnish  him  occasion  to 
grapple  with  that  same  old  problem  a  second  time!  And 
in  still  one  more  cradle,  somewhere  under  the  flag,  the  future 
illustrious  commander-in-chief  of  the  American  armies  is  so 
little  burdened  with  his  approaching  grandeurs  and  respon- 
sibilities as  to  be  giving  his  whole  strategic  mind,  at  this  mo- 
ment, to  trying  to  find  out  some  way  to  get  his  own  big  toe 
into  his  mouth,  an  achievement  which  (meaning  no  disrespect) 
the  illustrious  guest  of  this  evening  also  turned  his  attention 
to  some  fifty-six  years  ago!  And  if  the  child  is  but  the  prophecy 
of  the  man,  there  are  mighty  few  will  doubt  that  he  suc- 
ceeded.    (Laughter  and  prolonged  applause.) 

An  analysis  of  this  speech  will  reveal  a  skillful  use  of 
the  laws  of  Effective  Speaking. 


CHAPTER  XXV. 

SUMMARY. 

Reviewing,  briefly,  what  has  been  discussed  in  the  pre* 
ceeding  chapters: 

"We  have  seen  that  effective  speaking  is  not  a  matter  of 
blind  impulse  or  mere  chance,  that  underlying  it  are  prin- 
ciples in  accordance  with  which  the  speaker  must  work, 
and  that  to  ignore  these  principles  is  often  to  cause  failure 
where  their  recognition  would  have  won  success.  In  other 
words,  it  has  been  found  that  by  faithfully  following  the 
principles  and  method  set  forth  a  speaker  can  markedly 
increase  his  power. 

We  have  seen  that  the  foundation  of  effective  speaking 
is  the  perception  of  the  General  Ends,  that  these  Ends  are 
five — Clearness,  Impressiveness,  Belief,  Action  and  Enter- J 
tainment;  that  the  attainment  of  these  Ends  is  governed 
by  the  correct  use  of  the  principles  of  Reference  to  Exper- 
ience and  Cumulation;  that  to  secure  Clearness  we  must 
liken  the  idea  or  thing  we  desire  to  make  clear,  to  that 
idea  or  thing  in  the  listener's  experience  which  is  already 
clear;  that  to  achieve  Impressiveness  we  must  liken  the 
idea  we  desire  to  have  felt  to  that  idea  already  felt,  that 
when  we  seek  Belief  we  must  liken  the  thing  to  be  accepted 
V  that  which  is  already  accepted.  When  we  seek  Action 
we  must  snow,  inrougn  fne  Impelling  Motives,  that  the 
thing  we  desire  done  is  like  the  thing  already  done  or 

219 


220  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

desired  to  be  done.  When  we  seek  Entertainment  (amuse- 
ment) we  must  liken,  through  the  Factors  of  Interesting- 
ness,  the  idea  we  wish  to  be  enjoyed  to  that  idea  already 
enjoyed. 

In  respect  to  the  principle  of  Cumulation  we  have  seen 
that  it  permits  of  four  kinds  or  Forms  of  Support.  An 
assertion  may  be  supported  by  liestatement  (iteration). 
General  Illustration  (a  part  or  parts).  Specific  Instance 
(concrete  individualized  cases)  and  Testimony  (corrobora- 
tion). The  choice  of  these  Forms,  in  a  given  case,  will 
depend  on  which  Form  or  Forms,  in  the  shortest  time,  will 
come  adequately  into  the  listener's  experience. 

Discussing  the  actual  preparation  of  a  speech,  we  have 
seen  (presuming  familiarity  with  subject  and  conditions) 
that  the  first  essential  is  a  wise  choice  of  a  Statement  of 
Aim,  that  this  Statement  of  Aim  is  the  statement,  in  prop- 
ositional  form,  of  the  precise  thing  sought,  and  that  it 
should  be  no  larger  in  scope  than,  under  the  prescribed 
conditions,  can  be  achieved. 

We  have  seen  that  next  there  should  be  chosen  a  Central 
Idea,  that  this  Central  Idea  is  also  prepositional  in  form, 
and  is  that  idea  which,  when  developed,  will  best  achieve 
the  speaker's  purpose  as  expressed  in  the  Statement  of  Aim. 
Further,  we  have  seen  that  this  General  Idea  has  five 
requisites  for  effectiveness.  It  must  involve  the  Statement 
of  Aim,  it  must  come  into  the  listener's  experience,  it  must 
have  no  larger  scope  than  can  be  developed  adequately  in 
the  time  alotted,  it  must  have  interestingness,  and  it  must 
be  generative.  From  the  Central  Idea  we  have  seen  there 
will  come  the  Sub-Ideas,  or  branches  growing  out  of  the 
main  idea,  that  these  Sub-Ideas  must  be  valued  in  accord- 


SUMMARY  3?1 

ance  with  the  Principle  of  Reference  to  Experience,  and 
must  be  amplified  by  one  or  more  of  the  Four  Forms  of 
Support,  (Eestatement,  General  Illustration,  Specific  In- 
stance, Testimony)  in  the  degree  necessary  to  produce  the 
desired  effect,  the  choice  of  Form  or  Forms,  and  the  amount 
of  amplification,  depending  again  upon  the  principle  of 
Reference  to  Experience. 

Discussing  the  Introduction  it  has  been  pointed  out  that 
four  preliminary  conditions  must  exist  before  entering  into 
the  heart  of  one's  topic,  that  where  these  do  not  exist  they 
must  be  brought  about  by  the  speaker,  that  these  conditions 
or  requisites  are — Good  Will  Toward  Speaker,  Statement 
of  Purpose,  Good  Will  Toward  Purpose,  and  Interest  in 
Development. 

Also  attention  has  been  called  to  Oratorical  Style,  its 
nature,  place  and  power,  and  there  have  been  pointed  out 
some  of  its  useful  forms,  Repetition,  Interrogation,  Com- 
parison, Contrast,  Epithet,  Climax,  Ridicule,  Originality 
in  Thought  and  Originality  in  Phrase,  and  there  has  been 
illustrated  their  happy  use. 

Further,  there  has  been  emphasized  the  importance  of 
effective  thinking  and  of  effective  reading,  and  suggestions 
have  been  given  in  respect  to  the  development  of  the 
memory. 

These  things  have  all  a  direct  value  to  the  speaker,  and 
again  it  can  be  stated  that  if  the  speaker  will  follow  faith- 
fully the  principles  and  method  set  forth  in  the  preceding 
chapters,  he  will  take  himself  out  of  the  chaos  of  haphazard 
and  impulse,  in  speech,  and  into  the  realms  of  science  and 
art 


222  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

OUTLINE  TO  BE  USED  IN  THE  PEEPAEATIGN  OF  A 
SPEECH. 

Subject? 

Speech  Conditions Duration? Audience  Familiar 

or  Unfamiliar? Agree  or  Disagree? 

General    End? 

Statement  of  Aim? 

Central  Idea? 

Obverse  of  Central  Idea  ?    

*  Sub-Ideas?     (1)    

(2)    

(3)   

(4)   

Order  of  Importance  of  Sub-Ideas?    (By  No.)  

Order  of  Use  of  Sub-Ideas?    (By  No.) 

Introduction  (if  necessary)  ?  

Good    will    toward    Speaker?    

Statement  of  Purpose  ?   

Good  will  toward  Purpose?    

Interest  in  Development?  

Conclusion? 

Greatest  Obstacles  {|if  any,)  to  Attainment  of  Purpose?   

How  Best  to  Overcome  Obstacles?  

Sub-Ideas  that  Cover  these  Obstacles?  (By  No.)    


*  Sub-Ideas  to  be  developed  by  one  or  more  of  the  Forms  of 
Support  in  accordance  with  the  General  End  and  the  Principles 
of  Eeferenee  to  Experience  and  Cumulation. 


SUMMARY 


223 


Pi 
w 

w 
o 


a       s 


5  a       o 


a  2 


O  01  W  h 


2^  &,=  *&-== 


5  o  o 


!Sc— is 


S2 


3tiiiih(Iiui  »qx 


O.T3  t.,^       "^ 

w 

H   o  a=  SfS  o?* 

^  O  [^  o 
^  *-'  t/  5  cJ 


3        S 


C  B  £ 


<1,+J  on 


w 


CO  man  o"**" 


a      s 


Co  H 


2  Soi 


«         „3 


03 


a  t)  o  HI 

/^     01  a  Q       fT*  J3  w> 

"ell:  '^ 


a     = 


z:  a       o 


•"         'S*' 


t:   <   S 
«    I    1 


c  * 

si 


O      — T 


o 

z 

■a 

A 

u 

M 

ti) 

H 

n 
'3 

0. 

M 

Bi 

H 

>-' 

a§ 


5  s* 


a  V. 


j;      a       D 

i  s  =■ 

-   ^    5 


anoj  oqx 


a 

3 


EXERCISES. 


EXERCISES. 


EXERCISES  FOR  CHAPTER  II. 
the  general  ends. 

Exercise  1. 

Indicate  the  General  End  you  would  seek  with  the 
a\erage  audience  if  you  made  a  speech  upon  each  of  the 
following: 

1.  Culture  gives  pleasure. 

2.  Prison  methods  are  improving. 

3.  The  citizen  should  be  interested  in  politics. 

4.  The  Single  Tax. 

5.  Profit  sharing  is  a  wise  policy. 
G.     Preachers  are  a  power. 

7.  Poetry  entertains 

8.  Gambling  does  harm. 

9.  Patriotism  is  essential. 

10.  Success  is  achieved  by  hard  work. 

11.  The  government  should  own  and  operate  the  rail- 
roads. 

12.  Travel  is  delightful. 

13.  The  flag  should  symbolize  national  integrity. 

14.  Spain  is  a  delightful  country. 

15.  The  Apostle  Paul  was  great. 

16.  Be  charitable. 

Exercise  2. 
State  the  General  End  of  each  of  ten  speeches  by  noted 
orators. 

227 


238  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

ExEKCliSE    3. 

What  would  be  the  General  End  of  a  speech  to: 

Eepublicans — The  Wisdom  of  a  High  Protective  Tariff. 

Democrats — The  Wisdom  of  a  High  Protective  Tariff. 

Americans — The  Greatness  of  Washington. 

Lyceum  Audiences — Culture. 

Workingmen — The  Nebular  Theory. 

Farmers — The  Evils  of  Trusts. 

Business   Men — The  Evils  of  Trusts. 

Business  Men — The  jSTeed  of  Parcels  Post. 

Bankers — The  Need  of  Government  Savings  Banks. 

Workingmen — The  Need  of  Government  vSavings  BankS: 

Socialists — Karl  Marx. 

University  Students — Karl  Marx. 

Clerks — Importance  of  High  Wages. 

Factory  Owners — The  Evils  of  Child  Labor. 

Reform  Associations — The  Evils  of  Child  Labor. 

Prohibitionists — The   Need  of  Prohibition. 

Saloon  Keepers — The  Need  of  Prohibition. 

At  a  Woman's  Club — The  Modem  Woman. 

At  a  Men's  Banquet — The  ]\Iodern  Woman. 

At  a  Banquet — Sweet  Sixteen. 

At  a  Salesmen's  Convention — The  Art  of  Selling. 

The  Public— The  Worth  of  B  &  Co.'s  Shoes. 

Grammar  School   Students — Trusts. 

Father  to  Son — The  Importance  of  Study. 

Son  to  Father — The  Need  of  a  Summer  Outing. 

Mother  to  Daughter — The  Importance  of  ^Modest}-. 

Daughter  to  Mother — The  Need  of  a  New  Dress. 

High  School  Students — Borrowing. 

Students  in  History  Class — Napoleon. 

Students  in  Literature — Dante. 

Students  in  Economics — Malthusian  Theory. 


EXERCISES 


Exercise  4. 


229 


Set  forth  the  occasion  on  which  the  following  topics 
would  demand  Clearness;  also,  Impressiveness,  Belief, 
Action  and  Entertainment,  and  give,  in  each  case,  the 
phrasing  of  your  theme,  as : 

Topic — Farming. 


General  End. 
Clearness 


Audience. 


Students  of 
Farming 
Impressiveness    Farmers 


Farmers 


Phrasing  of  Topic. 
Farming  as  an  Art 

The  Farmer's  Value  to  So- 
ciety 
The  Profit  in  Small  Farms 


Belief 

Action  Workingmen    Go  Into  Farming 

Entertainment    Lyceum  Fun  In  Farming 


1. 
2. 

o 

O. 

4. 
5. 
6. 

7. 


The  American  Citizen.  8. 

Character.  9. 

College.c-  10. 

Expositions.  H. 
The  Navy. 

Story  of  a  Quarrel,  12. 

Description  of  a  Print-  13. 

insr  Press.  li. 


The  Single  Tax.. 
Buddhism. 
Profit  Sharing. 
The  American  Consti- 
tution. 
Chivalr}'. 
Civilization. 
The  Labor  Union. 


^ 


EXERCISES  FOE  CHAPTEK  III. 
the  principle  of  reference  to  experience. 

Exercise  1. 

Set  down  from  five  to  ten  synonyms  for  the  following 
terms  and  indicate  which  synonym  would  come  most  vivid- 
ly into  listener's  experience  for  Clearness  and  which  for 
Impressiveness. 


abandon 

abash 

ability 

abode 

abolish 

abdicate 

accoutre 

acrimonious 

perished 

Exercise  2. 

From  newspaper  or  magazine  make  five  clippings  in 
each  of  which  are  to  be  found  References  to  Experience, 
and  indicate  same  and  say  which  is  strongest  for  purpose 
in  view. 

Exercise  3. 

From  newspaper  or  magazine  make  five  clippings  in 
each  of  which  are  to  be  found  References  to  Experience, 
indicate  same  and  say  source  of  their  vividness,  whether 
from  original  intensity,  frequency,  frequency  of  recollec- 
tion, recency,  or  from  a  combination  of  these. 

Exercise  4. 
Set  down  five  experiences  of  your  own  that  are  virid 
from  original  intensity;  also,  from  frequency,  frequency 
of  recollection,  recency. 

230 


EXEECISES  231 

Exercise  5. 

Give  five  References  to  Experience  to  prove  each  of  the 
following  assertions,  and  indicate  which  of  each  five  you 
believe  the  most  effective: 

1.  Christianity  is  a  power. 

2.  Love  of  money  works  evil. 

3.  Patriotism  is  vital. 

4.  Trusts  are  powerful. 

5.  Lincoln  was  a  successful  man. 

EXERCISES  FOR  CHAPTER  lY. 
reference  to  experience  and  the  general  ends. 

Exercise  1. 

Set  down  five  to  seven  synonyms  for  each  of  the  follow- 
ing, and  indicate  which  you  consider  best  for  Clearness 
and  which  you  consider  best  for  Impressiveness : 


1. 

2. 
3. 

4. 
5. 

skill 

vilify 

accommodate 

severe 

fearless 

6.  brilliant 

7.  weakened 

8.  cheerful 

9.  sympathy 
10.    obnoxious 

Exercise  2. 

From  newspaper  or  maga/:ine  make  three  clippings  in 
each  of  which  are  terms  that  have  emotional  association, 
and  indicate  same. 

Exercise  3. 

From  newspaper  or  magazine  make  three  clippings  in 
each  of  which  are  terms  or  phrases  that  have  emotional 
association,  indicate  same,  and  say  which  is  most  vivid  for 
the  purpose  in  view. 


233  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

EXEECISE    4. 

From  newspaper  or  magazine  make  three  clippings  in 
each  of  which  there  are  terms  or  phrases  that  help  to 
make  clear  the  thought,  and  indicate  these  terms  or  phrases 
and  say  which  most  aids  Clearness. 

Exercise  5. 

Give  three  different  supports  of  each  of  the  following 
assertions ;  one  support  with  Clearness  as  the  End,  one  sup- 
port with  Impressiveness  as  the  End,  one  support  with 
Belief  as  the  End: 

1.  The  United  States  is  great. 

2.  Nature  punishes  wrong  doing. 

3.  We  are  improving  in  morals. 

4.  Shakespeare  had  a  great  imagination. 

5.  The  Press  does  good. 

Exercise  6. 

Make  clearer  each  of  the  following  assertions  by  tliree 
References  to  Experience,  and  indicate  which  of  each  three 
you  deem  the  most  effective: 

1.  The   man  has   integrity. 

2.  Popular  government  demands  wisdom. 

3.  Each  of  us  has  a  personality. 

4.  We  have  a  conscience. 

5.  He  possessed  culture. 

6.  She  v^^as  spiritual. 

Exercise  7. 

Support  each  of  the  following  assertions  by  three  Refer- 
ences to  Experience  which  you  believe  might  cause  the 
listener  to  feel  the  original  assertion,  that  is,  increase  the 
emotional  association,  and  indicate  which  you  deem  the 
most  effective: 

1.  Honesty  in  politics  wins, 

2.  Character  is  valuable. 

3.  A  strictly  truthful  guest  may  offend  the  hostess. 


EXERCISES  233 

4.  Man  has  natural  rights. 

5.  We  live  by  obeying  nature's  laws, 

6.  Union  is  strength. 

EXEECISE    8. 

Support  each  of  the  following  by  three  References  to 
Experience  that  will  secure  Belief,  and  indicate  which  of 
each  three  you  deem  the  most  effective : 

1.     The  Democratic  form  of  government  is  wise. 

3.     Trusts  sometimes  do  good. 

3.  American  literature  is  not  yet  great. 

4.  Crises  inspire  great  oratory. 

5.  Successful  men  are  sincere. 

6.  The  reformer  helps  society. 

Exercise  9. 

From  newspaper  or  magazine  make  three  clippings  in 
each  of  which  Belief  is  secured  by  References  to  Exper- 
ience, and  indicate  the  Eeferences,  and  say  which  you  deem 
the  most  effective  and  why. 

Exercise  10. 

Make  an  assertion  from  each  of  the  following  topics  and 
support  each  for  (a)  Clearness,  (b)  Impressivcness,  (c) 
Belief : 

1.  Trusts. 

2.  Benevolent  Societies. 

3.  Labor  Unions, 

4.  Lincoln. 

5.  Protective  Tariff. 

Exercise  11. 

From  newspaper  or  magazine  make  two  clippings  where 
Clearness  is  the  End,  two  where  Impressivcness  is  the 
End,  two  where  the  End  is  Belief,  and  state  whether,  in 
your  judgment,  the  right  kind  of  material  has  been  used ; 


234  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

that  is,  material  suited  to  the  End;  if  so,  quote  examples 
of  effective  use;  if  not,  quote  examples  of  ineffective  ma- 
terial; if  containing  both,  quote  examples  of  both. 

EXEECISE   12. 

Make  Impressive  the  following  assertions  and  topics 
(resolving  topics  into  assertions),  seeking  to  arouse  in 
listener  the  feeling  indicated: 

I.  Admiration : 

1.  The  garden  was  beautiful. 

2.  The  music  was  beautiful. 

3.  The  sunset  was  beautiful. 

4.  The  scenery  was  beautiful. 

5.  It  was  a  beautiful  picture. 

6.  She  was  a  beautiful  woman. 

7.  Washington. 

8.  Ulysses  Grant. 

9.  The  United  States. 

II.  Affection : 

1.  Lincoln  wins  our  affection. 

2.  Children   are   lovable. 

3.  Itlother. 

4.  Sister. 

III.  Indignation : 

1.  Child  Labor  is  shameful. 

2.  Bribery  deserves  condemnation. 

3.  The  assassin. 

IV.  Aversion  and  Disgust: 

1.  Drunkenness  is  disgusting. 

2.  Laziness  should  be  shunned. 

3.  The  sneak. 

4.  Prejudice. 


EXERCISES  235 


V. 

Awe: 

1. 

Death  is  awful. 

2. 

The  Universe. 

VI. 

Condemnation,  solemn: 

1. 

Thoughtless  actions  are  to  be  condemned 

2. 

Unkind  words. 

VII. 

Condemnation,    angry : 

1. 

Reckless   automobiling    deserves 
nation. 

condem- 

2. 

Wilful  misrepresentation  by  the 

press. 

3. 

The  non-enforcement  of  laws. 

VIII 

.     Contempt : 

1. 

The  coward  deserves  our  contempt. 

2. 

The  hypocrite. 

IX. 

Courage : 

1. 

Live  your  convictions. 

2. 

Bear  up  under  misfortune. 

3. 

Grit. 

X. 

Defiance : 

1. 

Tyranny  should  be  defied. 

2. 

We  should  assert  our  rights. 

XI. 

Joy: 

1. 

Spring  is  full  of  joy. 

2. 

Good  news. 

3. 

The  joy  of  living. 

XII. 

Emulation : 

1. 

Aim  high. 

2. 

Ideals. 

XII] 

'.    Dread : 

1. 

A  plague  is  to  be  dreaded. 

o 

A  flooa. 

3. 

An  earthquake. 

336  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

4.  Civil  war. 

5.  Anarchy. 

6.  Panic. 

XIV.  Encouragement : 

1.  Every  cloud  has  a  silver  lining. 

2.  Steady  push  wins. 

3.  Never  say  die. 

XV.  Gloom: 

1.  It  was  a  gloomy  day. 

2.  The  future  of  the  drunkard  is  dark. 

XVI.  Excitement : 

1.  There  was  great  excitement  at  the  fire. 

2.  A  race. 

3.  A  baseball  game. 

XVII.  Uproar : 

1.  There  was  great  uproar  at  the  meeting. 

2.  A  storm. 

3.  A  battle. 

XVIII.  Gayety : 

1.     There  was  great  fun  at  the  picnic. 
3.     He  was  full  of  fun  and  frolic. 
3.     A  romp. 

XIX.  Generosity. 

1.  He  exhibited  great  self  sacrifice. 

2.  Giving  to  the  needy. 

XX.  Grief: 

1.  His  failure  in  business  caused  great  grief. 

2.  The  loss  of  a  dear  friend. 

3.  The  year-old  orphan. 

4.  The  mother's  loss  of  her  onlv  child. 


EXERCISES 


337 


XXI.  Horror: 

1.  Shipwreck  has  its  horrors. 

2.  Torture. 

3.  CannibaliBm. 

4.  The  horrors  of  war. 

5.  Delirium  tremens. 

XXII.  Denunciation : 

1.  Cheating  deserves   denimciation. 

2.  The  tyranny  of  monopoly. 

3.  The  confidence  man. 

XXIII.  Love: 

1.  Our  mother  deserves  our  love. 

2.  One's  sweetheart. 

3.  One's  wife. 
XXIY.     Malice: 

1.  May  evil  come  to  evil  doers. 

2.  The  "liold-up." 

3.  The  traitor. 

XXV.  Mirth: 

1.     The   incident   was   mirthful. 
3.     Pranks. 
3.     Fun. 

XXVI.  Modesty : 

1.  He  possessed  true  modesty. 

2.  The  modesty  of  Lincoln. 

XXVII.  Omination: 

1.  There  are  signs  of  a  great  storm. 

2.  The  day  of  reckoning. 

3.  Judgment   dav. 

XXVIII.  Pain: 

1.  That  course  will  break  your  mother's  heart. 

2.  Injuring  your  country. 

3.  Uuining  vour  children. 


238 


EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 


XXIX.  Pity : 

1.  The  poor  have  many  sorrows. 

2.  The  uncared  for. 

3.  The  blind. 

XXX.  Eage: 

1.  He  slandered  a  defenseless  woman. 

2.  Torturing  the  innocent. 

XXXI.  Eegret: 

1.  You  have  caused  unnecessary  suffering. 

2.  Your  unintentional  misrepresentation  has 

caused  a  great  deal  of  trouble. 

XXXII.  Eemorse: 

1.     You  have  ruined  an  innocent  man. 

XXXIII.  Eidicule: 

1.  The  fop  is  ridiculous. 

2.  Superstition. 

3.  The   number   thirteen. 

4.  Friday. 

5.  Ghosts. 

XXXIV.  Sadness : 

1.  It  was  a  sad  death. 

2.  The  sad  hours. 

XXXV.  Sarcasm : 

1.  The  gentleman  showed  great  "condescen- 

sion(?)." 

2.  He  showed  great  "loyalty ( ?)." 

XXXVI.  Scorn : 

1.  The  bribe  giver  deserves  our  abhorrence. 

2.  The  grafter. 

3.  The  hypocrite. 


EXERCISES  339 


XXXVII. 

1. 

2. 

Solemnity : 
There  is  something  solemn  about  the  rid- 
dle of  life. 
The  death  watch. 

XXXVIII. 
1. 
2. 
3. 

Sublimity : 

The  ocean  is  sublime. 
The  Heavens. 
The  vast  mountain  ranges. 

XXXIX. 

1. 

2. 

Warning : 
Overconfidence  is  dangerous. 
The  dangers  of  the  hour. 

Exercise  13. 

Set  down  some  examples  of  master  speeches  where  Gen- 
eral End  has  been  Clearness,  also  (b)  Impressiveness,  (c) 
Belief. 

Exercise  14. 

From  newspaper  or  magazine  make  three  clippings  with 
excerpts  which  you  believe  you  can  improve  (keeping  in 
view  the  General  Ends),  and  indicate  how. 

Exercise  15. 

Of  the  following  kinds  of  things  set  down  the  three  of 
each  that  you  believe  have  the  greatest  Impressiveness 
(emotional  association)  with  the  average  person: 


1. 

Minerals. 

2. 

Colors. 

3. 

Fruits. 

4. 

Vegetables. 

5. 

Meats. 

6. 

Confections 

240  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

EXERCISES  FOR  CHAPTER  V. 
action  and  the  impelling  motives. 

Exercise  1. 

From  newspaper  or  magazine  make  five  clippings  in 
each  of  which  the  General  End  is  Action,  and  indicate  the 
Impelling  Motives  used  in  each. 

Exercise  2. 

From  newspaper  or  magazine  make  three  clippings  in 
each  of  which  the  General  End  is  Action,  indicate  the 
Impelling  Motives  used,  and  say  which  is  strongest  for 
the  End  in  view. 

Exercise  3. 

Aim  to  secure  Action  for  the  following  by  use  of  the 
entire  Seven  Impelling  Motives,  and  make  each  Motive 
come  vividly  into  listener's  experience : 

1.     Avoid  gambling. 

3.     Be  cheerful. 

3.     Save  a  little  from  your  income. 

Exercise  4. 

Aim  to  secure  Action  for  the  following,  by  use  of  as 
many  of  the  Impelling  Motives  as  practicable,  and  make 
each  come  vividly  into  listeners  experience: 


1. 

Be  cultured. 

2. 

Buy  our  flour. 

3. 

Be  punctual. 

4. 

Be  optimistic. 

5. 

Buy   this   piano. 

6. 

Have  courage. 

7. 

Obey  the  laws. 

8. 

Be  studious. 

9. 

Vote  against  Child  Labor. 

10. 

Be  persevering. 

EXERCISES  241 

Exercise  5. 

Support  the  following  by  use  of  all  Seven  Motives 
directly,  also  obversely : 

1.  Take  care  of  your  health. 

2.  Work   hard. 

3.  Be  moral. 

Exercise  G. 
Support  the  following  by  use  of  the  Motives  specified: 
Self  preservation: 

Keep  regular  hours. 
Property : 

Oppose  anarchy. 
Power : 

Be  persistent. 
Reputation : 

Be  honest. 
Affections : 

Be  thoughtful. 
Sentiments : 

Be  a  true  citizen. 
Tastes : 

Be  broadly  informed. 

Exercise  7. 

From  newspaper  or  magazine  make  three  clippings  in 
each  of  which  General  End  is  Action,  indicate  the  Motives 
used  and  say  if  they  are  the  most  powerful  that  could  be 
brought  to  bear  on  the  given  audience,  and  if  so,  why: 
if  not,  why  not,  and  what  Motives  would  be  stronger,  and 
illustrate  their  application. 

Exercise  8. 

Wliat  Motive  or  Motives  would  you  use  to  support  the 
following  in  a  ten  minute  speech  for  audience  as  specified, 
and  briefly  indicate  the  application  of  the  Motives: 


242  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

1.  Vote  for  the  Eight  Hour  Day. 

2.  Vote  for  Government  Ownership  of  Railroads. 

3.  Do  as  you  would  be  done  unto. 

Audiences. 

a — Average  general  audience, 
b — Audience  of  workingmen. 
e — Audience  of  business  men. 
d — Audience  of  farmers, 
f — Audience  of  professional  men. 

Exercise  9. 

Support  each  of  the  following  for  a  three  minute  speech 
for  (a)  Clearness,  (b)  Impressiveness,  (c)  Belief,  (d) 
Action : 

1.  Socialism  is  not  desirable. 

2.  We  need  culture. 

Exercise  10. 

Name  at  least  six  speeches  which  illustrate  the  effective 
use  of  the  Impelling  Motives. 

EXEECISES  FOR  CHAPTER  VI. 
entertainment  and  the  factors  of  interestingness. 

Exercise  1. 

From  newspaper  or  magazine  make  five  clippings  in 
each  of  which  are  used  two  or  more  of  the  Factors  of 
Interestingness,  indicate  same  and  say  which  is  the  most 
powerful  for  the  purpose  in  view. 

Exercise  2. 

Aim  to  make  the  following  entertaining  by  use  of  the 
retire  Seven  Factors  of  Interestingness,  and  make  each 
Factor  come  vividly  into  listener's  experience: 


EXERCISES  243 

1.  It  was  a  great  battle. 

2.  United  States  is  great. 

3.  It  was  a  great  game  of  baseball. 

4.  Washington  was  great. 

Exercise  3. 
Aim  to  make  each  of  the  following  entertaining  by  use 
of  as  many  of  the  Factors  of  Interestingness  as  practicable, 
and  make  each  Factor  come  vividly  into  listener's  exper- 
ience : 

1.  It  was  a  fine  entertainment. 

2.  It  is  an  excellent  magazine. 

3.  Women  should  have  the  suffrage. 

4.  He  possessed  genius. 

5.  We  are  improving  in  morals. 

6.  The  garden  was  beautifuL 

Exercise  4. 
Support  each  of  the  following  in  a  three  minute  speech 
by  use  of  the  Factors  specified: 
Vital: 

Loyalty. 

Home. 
Unusual : 

The  American  Citizen. 
Uncertain : 

The  future. 
Similar : 

The  farm. 
Antagonistic : 

Voting. 
Concrete : 

Happiness. 
Animate : 

Drama. 


244  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

Exercise  5. 

From  newspaper  or  magazine  make  three  clippings  each 
of  which  contains  three  or  more  of  the  Factors  of  Inter- 
estingness,  indicate  same  and  say  if  they  are  the  most 
powerful  that  could  be  used;  if  so,  why;  if  not,  why  not, 
and  what  Factors  would  be  stronger,  and  illustrate  their 
application. 

Exercise  6. 

What  Factor  or  Factors  of  Interestingness  would  you 
use  to  support  the  following,  in  a  ten  minute  speech,  and 
indicate  briefly  their  application: 

Clearness — Conscience. 

Impressiveness — Lincoln. 

Belief — Culture. 

Action — Active  interest  in  politics. 

Entertainment — Hobbies. 

Audiences. 
a — Average  general  audience, 
b — Audience  of  workingmen. 
c — Audience  of  business  men. 
d — Audience  of  farmers, 
e — Audience  of  professional  men. 

Exercise  7. 
Support  each  of  the  following  in  a  three  minute  speech, 
for   (a)    Clearness,   (b)    Impressiveness,    (c)    Belief,    (d) 
Action,  (e)  Entertainm.ent : 

1.  The  American  Flag. 

2.  Opportunities  for  success. 

3.  Progress. 

(Average  general  audience.) 

Exercise  8. 
Name  ten  speeches  worthy  of  note  for  their  interesting- 
ness— two  where  the  General  End  is  Entertainment;  two. 
Belief;  two,  Impressiveness;  two.  Action;  two,  Clearnesa. 


EXERCISES  245 

Exercise  9. 

Name  a  speech  where  the  dominant  Factor  is  (a)  the 
Vital,  also  similarly  with  (b)  the  Unusual,  (c)  the  Un- 
certain, (d)  the  Similar,  (e)  the  Antagonistic,  (f)  the 
Animate,  (g)  the  Concrete. 

Exercise  10. 

Set  down  ten  assertions  that  have  interestingness  through 
the  (a)  Vital;  likewise  (b)  the  Unusual,  (c)  the  Uncer- 
tain, (d)  the  Similar,  (e)  the  Antagonistic,  (f)  the 
Animate,  (g)  the  Concrete. 

Exercise  11. 

From  each  of  the  following  choose  a  topic  (stating  it  in 
the  form  of  an  assertion),  which  has  Interestingness 
through  the  (a)  Vital;  likewise  (b)  the  Unusual,  (c)  the 
Uncertain,  (d)  the  Similar,  (e)  the  Antagonistic,  (f) 
the  Animate,  (g)  the  Concrete: 

1.  Power. 

2.  Poverty. 

3.  Athletics. 

4.  Patriotism. 

5.  Government. 

Exercise  12. 

With  Entertainment  as  General  End  choose  a  subject 
and  develop  a  three  minute  speech,  using  the  Unusual  as 
the  Factor;  likewise  the  Antagonistic,  the  Animate,  the 
Similar. 

Exercise  13. 
Set  down  the  two  Factors  you  think  strongest  with : 
a — The  average  man. 
b — The  average  woman. 
c — The  average  workingman. 
d — The  average  business  man. 
e — The  average  farmer. 


246  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

f — The  average  church  audience, 
g — The  average  political  audience, 
h — The  average  lyceum  audience, 
i — The  average  Sunday  school  audience. 

EXEECISES  FOR  CHAPTER  VII. 

cumulation, 

Exercise  1. 
Write  a  500  word  Cumulation  for  each  of  the  following : 

1.  Clearness — Personality. 

2.  Impressiveness — The  Joys  of  hope. 

3.  Belief — Mankind  is  progressing. 

4.  Action — Obey  the  law. 

5.  Entertainment — The  pleasures  of  the  imagination. 

Exercise  2. 

Mention  ten  good  examples  of  Cumulation. 

Exercise  3. 
From  newspaper  or  magazine  make  three  clippings  where 
Cumulation  has  been  inadequate,  and  state  why. 

Exercise  4. 

To  be  effective  which  of  the  following  assertions  would 
need  Cumulation,  and  about  how  much? 
For  Belief: 

1.  Child  Labor  is  an  evil. 

2.  Man  is  a  wonderful  being. 

3.  Honesty  is  the  best  policy. 

4.  Indigestion  is  haimful. 

For  Action : 

1.  Be  tolerant. 

2.  Vote  for  the  Eight  Hour  Day. 

3.  Courtesy  pays. 


EXERCISES  247 

For  Impressiveness : 

1.  Lincoln  was  great. 

2.  Eobert  E.  Lee  was  a  great  general. 

3.  Modern  illumination  is  marvelous. 

4.  Winter  is  cold. 
For  Clearness : 

1.  The  lilalthusian  Theory. 

2.  Spirit. 

(Average  general  audience.) 

Exercise  5. 

From  ncAvspaper  or  magazine  make  two  clippings  which 
you  consider  are  excellent  illustrations  of  effective  Cumula- 
tion, and  state  why. 

EXERCISES  FOR  CHAPTER  VIII. 
assertions  and  the  four  forms  of  support. 

Exercise  1. 

From  newspaper  or  magazine  make  five  clippings  in 
each  of  which  Assertions  are  supported,  indicate  same  and 
the  kind  of  support  used. 

Exercise  2. 

Support  the  following  Assertions,  using  all  of  the  Four 
Forms  of  Support : 

1.  The  United  States  has  had  great  men. 

2.  Strikes  do  harm. 

3.  The  world  is  progressing. 

4.  Lincoln  was  great. 

5.  Electricity  is  a  useful  force. 

6.  Christianity  is  a  power. 

7.  Washington    was    a    patriot. 

8.  Drunkenness  does  harm. 


348  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

9.     The  United  States  is  a  great  nation. 
10.     The  power  of  money  is  great. 

Exercise  3. 

From  newspaper  or  magazine  make  five  clippings  in  each 
of  which  assertions  are  supported.  Indicate  the  assertions 
and  say  the  kind  of  Support  used. 

Exercise  4. 

From  newspaper  or  magazine  make  three  clippings  in 
each  of  which  are  unsupported  assertions;  indicate  same 
and  say  if  any  should  have  been  supported,  and  if  so,  why, 
and  indicate  the  kind  of  Support  that  should  have  been 
used. 

Exercise  5. 
From  newspaper  or  magazine  make  one  clipping  which, 
in  your  judgment,  contains  an  assertion  that  is  over  sup- 
ported, and  justify  your  opinion. 


EXERCISES  FOE  CHAPTER  IX. 

restatement. 

Exercise  1. 

With  the  aim  of  securing  adequate  Clearness  make  three 
Restatements  of  each  of  the  following,  and  indicate  which 
of  the  three  you  believe  would  come  closest  into  listener's 
experience : 

1.  He  was  altruistic. 

2.  It   was    fictitious. 

3.  Genius  is  the  heir  of  fame. 

4.  Riches  are  the  baggage  of  virtue. 

5.  He  was  masterful. 

6.  It  was  ethical. 


EXERCISES  249 

Exercise  2. 

Make  an  Obverse  Restatement  for  each  of  the  assertions 
in  Exercise  1 — Thus: 
Temperance  is  wise. 
Obverse — Intemperance  is  unwise. 

Exercise  3. 

Which,  if  any,  of  the  following  assertions  would  prop- 
erly demand  Restatement  to  make  them  adequately  clear 
to  average  audience: 

1.  There  are  some  men  with  just  imagination  enough 
to  spoil  their  Judgment. 

2.  It  is  a  great  sign  of  mediocrity  to  be  always  re- 
served in  praise. 

3.  If  you  would  love  mankind  you  must  not  expect  too 
much  of  them. 

4.  ^larriage  is  a  feast  where  the  grace  is  sometimes 
better  than  the  dinner. 

5.  Enthusiasts  without  capacity  are  the  really  danger- 
ous people. 

Exercise  4. 

From  newspaper  or  magazine  make  three  clippings  in 
each  of  which  there  is  Restatement  for  the  purpose  of 
Clearness,  and  indicate  same,  and  say  if,  in  your  judg- 
ment, the  use  of  Restatement  is  justified.  If  justified,  are 
the  Restatements  adequate,  and  if  so,  why?  If  not,  why 
not,  and  how  would  you  correct? 

Exercise  5. 

With  the  aim  of  securing  adequate  Impressiveness  make 
three  Restatements  of  each  of  the  following,  and  indicate 
which  of  the  three  would  come  closest,  emotionally,  into 
listeners  experience: 


250 


EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 


Assertion. 

Feeling  t 

1. 

He  was  enthusiastic. 

Admiration 

2. 

Hypocrisy  is  abhorrent. 

Abhorrence 

3. 

Faith  uplifts. 

Sublimity 

4. 

Loyalty  is  admirable. 

Admiration 

5. 

Lincoln  obeyed  his  con- 
science. 

Admiration 

6. 

He  had  ill  health. 

Pity 

7. 

We  had  a  joyous  time. 

Delight 

Exercise  6. 
Make  one  Obverse  Eestatement,  for  Impressiveness,  of 
each  of  the  assertions  in  Exercise  5. 

Exercise  7. 

Which,  if  any,  of  the  following  assertions  would  prop- 
erly demand  Eestatement  to  make  them  adequately  Im- 
pressive to  average  audience: 

1.  He  was  esthetic. 

2.  Indolence  weakens  character. 

3.  He  was  afire  for  God. 

4.  He  loved  display. 

Exercise   8. 

From  nev/spaper  or  magazine  make  three  clippings  in 
each  of  which  there  is  Eestatement  for  the  purpose  of 
Impressiveness,  and  indicate  same,  and  say,  if,  in  your 
judgment,  the  Eestatements  are  adequate,  and  if  so,  why? 
If  not,  why  not,  and  how  would  you  correct  ? 

Exercise  9. 

With  the  aim  of  securing  adequate  Belief  make  three 
Eestatements  of  each  of  the  following,  and  indicate  which 
of  the  three  would  come  closest  into  listeners  experience: 

1.  Man  has  a  soul. 

2.  The  popular  will  should  be  obeyed. 


EXERCISES  251 

3.  The  future  is  hidden. 

4.  The  law  must  be  upheld. 

5.  The   true   patriot   is  self-sacrificing. 

6.  Evolution   is   ever   working. 

7.  Murder  will  out. 

Exercise  10. 

Make  one  Obverse  Eestatement  for  Belief  of  each  of  the 
assertions  in  Exercise  9. 

Exercise  11. 

Which,  if  any,  of  the  following  assertions  would  prop- 
erly demand  Restatement  for  Belief: 

1.  Culture  gives  pleasure. 

2.  Class   distinctions   are   unwise. 

3.  Conscience   should   determine   conduct. 

Exercise  12. 

From  newspaper  or  magazine  make  three  clippings  in 
each  of  which  Eestatement  is  used  for  Belief,  indicate 
same  and  say,  if,  in  your  judgment,  the  Restatements  are 
adequate,  and  if  so,  why?  If  not,  why  not,  and  how 
would  you  correct? 

EXERCISES  FOR  CHAPTER  X. 
RESTATEMENT    ( Continued ) . 

Exercise  1. 

With  the  aim  of  securing  Action  make  three  Restate- 
ments of  each  of  the  following,  and  indicate  which  of  the 
three  you  believe  would  come  closest  into  listener's  expert 
ience,  and  also  indicate  the  Impelling  Motives  you  use: 

1.  Be  tolerant. 

2.  Have   grit. 

3.  Never  shirk  responsibilities. 

4.  Retain  your  independence. 


252  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKINa 

5.  Be  patriotic. 

6.  Be  courageous. 

7.  Lend  a  hand  to  the  downtrodden. 

Exercise  2. 

Make  an  Obverse  Restatement  for  Action  for  each  of  the 
assertions  in  Exercise  1. 

Exercise  3. 

Which,  if  any,  of  the  following  assertions  would  prop- 
erly demand  Restatement  for  Action  with  average  audi- 
ence: 

1.  Be   brave. 

2.  Be  honest. 

3.  Be  energetic. 

4.  Protect  your  family. 

5.  Do  your  duty. 

Exercise  4. 
From  newspaper  or  magazine  make  three  clippings  in 
each  of  which  Eestatement  is  used  for  Action,  indicate 
same,  and  say,  if,  in  your  judgment,  the  Restatements  are 
adequate,  and  if  so,  why  ?  If  not,  why  not,  and  how  would 
yon  correct? 

Exercise  5. 

With  the  aim  of  securing  adequate  Entertainment  make 
three  Restatements  of  each  of  the  following,  and  indicate 
which  of  the  three  comes  closest  to  listener's  pleasurable 
experience,  and  state  the  Factors  of  Interestingness  you 
use: 

1.  The  menu  was  excellent. 

2.  The  home  was  beautiful. 

3.  He  was  companionable. 

4.  Niagara  Falls  is  grand. 

5.  He  was  a  master  poet. 


IIXERCISES  253 

Exercise  6, 

Make  one  Obverse  Restatement  for  Entertainment  of 
each  of  the  assertions  in  Exercise-  5. 

Exercise  7. 

Which,  if  any,  of  the  following  assertions  would  prop- 
erly demand  Restatement  to  make  them  adequately  enter- 
taining to  average  listener: 

1.  The  ocean  is  sublime. 

2.  Tlie  landscape  is  beautiful. 

3.  Mark  Twain  is  witty. 

4.  Shakespeare  is  entertaining. 

Exercise  8. 

From  newspaper  or  magazine  make  three  clippings  in 
each  of  which  Restatement  is  used  for  Entertainment; 
indicate  same,  and  say,  if,  in  your  judgment,  the  Restate- 
ments are  adequate,  and  if  so,  why  ?  If  not,  why  not,  and 
how  would  you  correct  ? 

Exercise  9. 

From  newspaper  or  magazine  make  a  clipping  in  which 
Restatement  has  been  used  as  a  Conclusion.  Also  make 
a  clipping  in  which  Restatement  is  Recurrent,  and  indi- 
cate same. 


EXERCISES  FOR  CIIAPTR  XI. 
general   illustration. 

Exercise  1. 

With  the  aim  of  securing  adequate  Clearness  make  five 
General  Illustrations  of  each  of  the  following,  and  indi- 
cate which  of  the  five  you  believe  comes  closest  into  lis- 
tener's experience: 

1.  He  has  a  pleasing  personality. 

2,  He  would  be  a  good  mayor. 


254  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

3.  He  was  a  man  of  culture. 

4.  He  was  a  great  statesman. 

5.  It  is   a  great  newspaper. 

6.  He  manifested  a  true  religious  spirit. 

7.  He   was  a  gentleman. 

Exercise  2. 

Make  two  Obverse  General  Illustrations  for  each  of  the 
assertions  in  Exercise  1,  thus : 
He  was  a  gentleman. 

Obverse — He  did  not  smoke  if  it  was  unpleasant  to  the 
ladies. 

Exercise  3. 

Which,  if  any,  of  the  following  assertions  would  demand 
General  Illustration  to  make  them  adequately  clear  tc 
average  audience: 

1.  He  was  an  altruist. 

2.  He  was  a  scholar. 

3.  He  had  faith  in  the  American  financial  system. 

4.  Popular  government  demands  wisdom. 

Exercise  4. 

From  newspaper  or  magazine  make  three  clippings  i . 
each  of  which  General  Illustration  is  used  for  Clearness; 
indicate  same,  and  say,  if,  in  your  judgment,  the  Genera] 
Illustrations  are  adequate,  and  if  so,  why?  If  not,  why 
not,  and  how  would  you  correct? 

Exercise  5. 

With  the  aim  of  securing  adequate  Impressiveness  make 
five  General  Illustrations  of  each  of  the  following,  and 
indicate  which  of  the  five  would  come  closest,  emotionally, 
into  listener's  experience : 

1.  America  has  a  great  future. 

2.  Strikes  do  harm. 

3.  Labor  Unions  are  a  power. 


EXERCISES  255 

4.  The  country  was  in  a  state  of  anarchy. 

5.  He  was  a  fine  poet. 

6.  He   was  a  great  orator. 

7.  It  was  a  great  novel. 

Exercise  6. 

Make  two  Obverse  General  Illustrations  for  Impressive- 
ness,  of  each  of  the  assertions  in  Exercise  5. 

Exercise  7. 

Which,  if  any,  of  the  following  assertions  would  demand 
General  Illustration  to  make  them  adequately  impressive 
to  average  audience: 

1.  Exercise  brings  strength. 

2.  Child  Labor  is  an  evil. 

3.  The  press  does  good. 

4.  The  heavens   are   sublime. 

Exercise  8. 

From  newspaper  or  magazine  make  three  clippings  in 
each  of  which  General  Illustration  is  used  for  Impressive- 
ness;  indicate  same,  and  say,  if,  in  your  judgment,  the 
General  Illustrations  are  adequate,  and  if  so,  why?  If 
not,  why  not,  and  how  would  you  correct  ? 

Exercise  9. 

With  the  aim  of  securing  adequate  Belief  make  five 
General  Illustrations  of  each  of  the  following,  and  indicate 
which  of  the  five  comes  closest  into  listener's  experience : 

1.  The  American  people  have  achieved  much. 

2.  Fetes  help  trade. 

3.  Monopoly  does  harm. 

4.  Fame  has  its  annoyances. 

5.  We  are  influenced  by  our  environment. 

6.  War  has  evils. 

7.  We  are  improving  in  morals. 


256  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

Exercise  10. 

Make  two  Obverse  General  Illustrations  for  Belief  of 
the  assertions  in  Exercise  9. 

Exercise  11. 

Which,  if  any,  of  the  following  assertions  would  demand 
General  Illustration  to  secure  adequate  Belief : 

1.  Business  is   sensitive. 

2.  Corporations  are  powerful. 

3.  Power  dulls  the  morals. 

4.  Reformers  aid  civilization. 

Exercise  12. 

From  newspaper  or  magazine  make  three  clippings  in 
each  of  which  General  Illustration  is  used  for  Belief; 
indicate  same,  and  say,  if,  in  your  judgment,  the  General 
Illustrations  are  adequate,  and  if  so,  why?  If  not,  why 
not,  and  how  would  you  correct? 

EXEECISES  for  chapter  XII. 
general  illustration   (Continued). 

Exercise  1. 

With  the  aim  of  securing  Action  make  five  General 
Illustrations  of  each  of  the  following  and  indicate  which 
of  the  five  you  believe  would  come  most  vividly  into  lis- 
tener's experience,  and  also  indicate  the  Impelling  Motives 
you  use: 

1.  Use  wealth  wisely. 

2.  Advertising  pays. 

3.  Be  ambitious. 

4.  Be  a  good  public  speaker. 

5.  Develop  character. 

6.  Be  a  real  citizen. 

7.  Be  cautious. 


EXERCISES  267 

Exercise  3. 

Make  two  Obverse  General  Illustrations  for  Action  for 
each  of  the  assertions  in  Exercise  1. 

Exercise  3. 

Which,  if  any,  of  the  following  assertions  would  demand 
General  Illustration  for  Action  with  average  audience: 

1.  Practice  kindness. 

2.  Abhor  lying. 

3.  Cultivate  the  Ideal. 

4.  Be  modest. 

5.  Don't  be  egotistical. 

Exercise  4. 

From  newspaper  or  magazine  make  three  clippings  in 
each  of  which  General  Illustration  is  used  for  Action; 
indicate  same,  and  say,  if,  in  your  judgment,  the  General 
Illustrations  are  adequate,  and  if  so,  why?  If  not,  why 
not,  and  how  would  you  correct? 

Exercise  5. 

With  the  aim  of  securing  adequate  Entertainment  make 
five  General  Illustrations  of  each  of  the  following,  and 
indicate  which  of  the  five  comes  most  vividly  into  listener's 
experience  pleasurably,  and  state  Factors  of  Interesting- 
ness  you  use: 

1.  He  was  a  great  historian. 

2.  The  woman  was  beautiful. 

3.  He  was  a  brilliant  conversationalist. 

4.  He  was  a  great  dramatist. 

5.  He  was  a  great  general. 

6.  He  was  a  fine  scholar. 

Exercise  6. 

Make  two  Obverse  General  Illustrations  for  EnterUin- 
ment  of  each  of  the  assertions  in  Exercise  5. 


258  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

Exercise  7. 

Which,  if  any,  of  the  following  assertions  would  prop- 
erly demand  General  Illustration  to  make  them  adequately 
entertaining  to  average  listener: 

1.  He  was  esthetic. 

2.  He  was  a  seer. 

3.  Napoleon  was  great. 

4.  Washington  was  noble. 

5.  The  book  was  excellent. 

Exercise  8. 

From  newspaper  or  magazine  make  three  clippings  in 
each  of  which  General  Illustration  is  used  for  Entertain- 
ment; indicate  same,  and  say,  if,  in  your  judgment,  the 
General  Illustrations  are  adequate,  and  if  so,  why?  If 
not,  why  not,  and  how  would  you  correct? 

Exercise  9. 

Eesolve  the  following  terms  into  some  of  their  parts, 
i.  e.,  into  some  of  the  things  they  include : 

1.  Weapons. 

2.  Household  furniture. 

3.  Colors. 


EXERCISES  FOR  CHAPTER  XIII. 
specific  instance. 

Exercise  1. 

Give  ten  Specific  Instances  of  each  of  the  following: 

a — There  are  a  great  many  railroads  in  the  United 
States. 

b — America  has  had  some  excellent  public  men. 

c — The  United  States  has  won  victories  on  both  land 
and  sea. 


EXERCISES  26i> 

d — We  have  many  excellent  periodicals. 

e — There  are  many  good  uses  to  which  wealth  can  be  put. 

Exercise  2. 

With  the  aim  of  securing  adequate  Clearness  make  three 
Specific  Instances  of  each  of  the  following,  and  indicate 
wliich  of  the  three  comes  most  vividly  into  listener's  ex- 
perience : 

1.  He  was  eccentric. 

2.  He  was  extremely  officious. 

3.  He  used  apothegms. 

4.  National  characteristics  make  different  results. 

5.  He  was  many  sided. 

6.  Obeying  nature's  laws  we  have  power. 

7.  He  used  irony. 

Exercise  3. 

Make  one  Obverse  Specific  Instance  of  each  of  the  aaaer- 
tions  in  Exercise  2. 

Exercise  4. 

Which,  if  any,  of  the  following  assertions  would  demand 
Specific  Instance  to  make  them  adequately  Clear  to  average 
audience : 

1.  He  was  epigrammatic. 

2.  Monopoly  restricts  opportunity, 

3.  We  can  make  our  own  opportunity  to  succeed. 

4.  Our  civilization  has  extremes. 

Exercise  5. 

From  newspaper  or  magazine  make  three  clippings  in 
each  of  which  Specific  Instance  has  been  used  for  Clear- 
ness; indicate  same,  and  say  if.  in  your  judgment,  the 
Specific  Instances  are  adequate,  and  if  so,  why?  If  not, 
whv  not,  and  how  would  vou  correct? 


geO  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

Exercise  6. 

With  the  aim  of  securing  adequate  Impressiveness  make 
three  Specific  Instances  of  each  of  the  following,  and 
indicate  which  of  the  three  comes  most  vividly  (that  is, 
with  the  greatest  emotional  association)  into  listener's 
experience : 

1.  Nations  decay. 

2.  The  American  Navy  has  achieved  great  things. 

3.  Woman  has  many  achievements  to  her  credit. 

4.  Shakespeare  wrote  great  plays. 

5.  It  was  a  magnificently  furnished  room. 

6.  Americans  have  achieved  much. 

7.  Sometimes  we  meet  with  unavoidable  misfortunes. 

8.  Past  valorous  deeds  are  an  inspiration  to  nations. 

Exercise  7. 

Make  one  Obverse  Specific  Instance  for  Impressiveness 
of  assertions  2,  4,  5,  6  in  preceding  Exercise. 

Exercise  8. 

Which,  if  any,  of  the  following  assertions  would  prop- 
erly demand  Specific  Instance  to  make  them  adequately 
Impressive  to  average  audience: 

1.  Optimism  wins. 

2.  Character  is  valuable. 

3.  System  saves  time. 

4.  Our   government  has   many   departments. 

Exercise  9. 

Ftom  newspaper  or  magazine  make  three  clippings  in 
each  of  which  Specific  Instance  is  used  for  Impressive- 
ness; indicate  same,  and  say  if,  in  your  judgment,  the 

Specific  Instances  are  adequate,  and  if  so,  why?     If  not, 

why  not,  and  how  would  you  correct  ? 


EXERCISES  261 

Exercise  10. 

With  the  aim  of  securing  adequate  Belief  make  three 
Specific  Instances  of  each  of  the  following  and  indicate 
which  of  the  three  comes  most  vividly  into  listener's  ex- 
perience : 

1.  Presidential  elections  benefit  the  people. 

2.  Success  means  hard  work. 

3.  The  world  grows  more  sympathetic. 

4.  Heroism  means  immortality. 

5.  Young  men  have  occupied  eminent  positions. 

6.  Peace  promotes  literature. 

7.  Great  men  have  courage. 

8.  Some  people  are  born  great. 

9.  We  live  by  obeying  nature's  laws. 

10.  Arbitration  is   practicable. 

11.  Punctuality  pays. 

12.  The  buman  race  progresses. 

13.  Animals  reason. 

14.  Capitalists   sometimes   run  risks. 

Exercise  11. 

Make  one  Obverse  Specific  Instance  for  Belief  of  asser- 
tions 1,  2,  3,  r,  9,  13. 

Exercise  12. 

Which,  if  any,  of  the  following  assertions  would  demand 
Specific  Instance  for  Belief: 

1.  Co-operation   succeeds. 

2.  Free   trade  is   beneficial. 

3.  Cromwell  was  an  able  ruler. 

4.  Obeying  nature's  laws  we  have  power. 

5.  Personality  is  helpful. 

Exercise  13. 
From  newspaper  or  magazine  make  three  clippings  in 
each  of  which  Specific  Instance  is  used  for  Belief;  indi- 


262  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

cate  same,  and  say  if,  in  j^our  judgment,  the  Specific  In- 
stances are  adequate,  and  if  so,  why?  If  not,  why  not, 
and  how  would  you  correct? 


EXEKCISES  FOR  CHAPTER  XIV. 
SPECIFIC  INSTANCE   (Continued). 

Exercise  1. 

With  the  aim  of  securing  Action,  make  three  Specific 
Instances  of  eacli  of  the  following,  and  indicate  which  of 
the  three  comes  into  listener's  experience  most  vividly: 

1.  Party  allegiance  is  wise. 

2.  Immigration  is  desirable. 

3.  Careful  voting  promotes  prosperity. 

4.  The  study  of  literature  is  profitable. 

5.  Arbitration  is   wise. 

6.  The  stage,  as  a  whole,  is  worthy  of  support. 

7.  A  large  American  navy  is  necessar3\ 

8.  Patriotism  is  vital. 

9.  Temperance  is  wisdom. 

Exercise  2. 

Make  an  Obverse  Specific  Instance  for  Action,  for  asser- 
tions 1,  2,  3,  5,  9,  in  Exercise  1. 

Exercise  3. 

Which,  if  any,  of  the  following  assertions  would  prop- 
erly demand  Specific  Instance  for  Action  with  average 
audience : 

1.  An  Eight  Hour  day  is  desirable. 

2.  Postal  Savings  Banks  would  be  beneficial  to  the 
people. 

3.  Honesty  is  the  best  policy. 

4.  Culture  is  preferable  to  riches. 


EXEECISES  263 

Exercise  4. 

From  newspaper  or  magazine  make  three  clippings  in 
each  of  which  Specific  Instance  is  used  for  Action;  indi- 
cate same,  and  say  if,  in  your  judgment,  the  Specific  In- 
stances used  are  adequate,  and  if  so,  why?  If  not,  why 
not,  and  how  would  you  correct? 

Exercise  5. 

With  the  aim  of  securing  adequate  Entertainment  make 
three  Specific  Instances  of  each  of  the  following,  and  indi- 
cate which  of  the  three  comes  into  listener's  pleasurable 
experience  most  vividly,  and  state  the  Factors  of  Interest- 
ingness  you  use : 

1.  Inventions  have  revolutionized  industry, 

2.  Shakespeare  was  a  great  portrayer  of  character. 

3.  Stories  of  adventure  give  pleasure. 

4.  The  costumes  were  beautiful. 
.5.     Women  are  self-sacrificing. 

6.  United  States  has  many  dramatic  incidents  in  her 
history. 

7.  There  have  been  great  queens. 

Exercise  6. 

Make  one  Obverse  Specific  Instance  for  Entertainment 
of  assertions  1,  4,  2,  in  preceding  exercise. 

Exercise  7. 
Which,  if  any,  of  the  following  assertions  would  prop- 
erly demand  Specific  Instance  to  make  them  adequately 
Entertaining  to  average  listener : 

1.  Stories  of  adventure  give  pleasure, 

2.  Great  nations  have  great   histories, 

3,  War  has  its  great  hours. 

4,  The  drawing  room  was  elegantly  furnished. 


264  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

Exercise  8. 

From  newspaper  or  magazine  make  three  clippings  in 
each  of  which  Specific  Instance  is  used  for  Entertainment ; 
indicate  same,  and  the  Factors  used,  and  say  if,  in  your 
judgment,  the  Specific  Instances  are  adequate,  and  if  so, 
why?     If  not,  why  not,  and  how  would  you  correct? 


EXERCISES  FOR  CHAPTER  XV. 
testimony. 

Exercise  1. 
"With  the  aim  of  securing  Clearness  support  each  of  the 
following  assertions  by  one  Testimony: 

1.  Socialism  is  collective  ownership, 

2.  Theosophj  deals  with  the  spiritual. 

3.  Agnosticism  is  negative. 

4.  Altruism  subordinates  the  ego. 

5.  Darwinism  teaches  evolution. 

Exercise  2. 

Which,  if  any,  of  the  following  assertions  would  prop- 
erly demand  Testimony  for  Clearness: 

1.  The  Sophists  and  Epicureans  differed  in  their  phi- 
losophies. 

2.  He  was  a  Necessarian. 

3.  He  advocated  Profit-Sharing. 

4.  He  was  in  favor  of  Direct  Legislation, 

Exercise  3, 

From  newspaper  or  magazine  make  three  clippings  in 
each  of  which  Testimony  is  used  for  Clearness;  indicate 
same,  and  say  if,  in  your  judgment,  the  Testimony  used 
is  adequate,  and  if  so,  why?  If  not,  why  not,  and  how 
would  you  correct? 


EXERCISES  265 

Exercise  4. 

"With  the  aim  of  securing  adequate  Impressiveness  sup- 
port each  of  the  following  assertions  with  one  Testimony: 

1.  Washington  was  great. 

2.  Jefferson  greatly  helped  the  American  Revolution. 

3.  Napoleon  was  a  master  general. 

4.  Julius  Caesar  was  one  of  the  world's  foremost  men. 

5.  American  production  is  increasing. 

Exercise  5. 

"Which,  if  any,  of  the  following  assertions  would  prop- 
erly demand  Testimony  to  make  them  adequately  Impres- 
sive to  average  audience: 

1.  Savanarola  was  great. 

2.  Libraries  educate. 

3.  True  art  uplifts. 

4.  American  Literature  is   improving. 

Exercise  6. 
From  newspaper  or  magazine  make  three  clippings  in 
each  of  which  Testimony  is  used  for  Impressiveness ;  indi- 
cate same,  and  say  if,  in  your  judgment,  the  Testimony 
used  is  adequate,  and  if  so,  why?  If  not,  why  not,  and 
how  would  you  correct? 

Exercise  7. 
With  the  aim  of  securing  adequate  Belief  support  each 
of  the  following  assertions  with  one  Testimony : 

1.  A  Protective  Tariff  is  desirable. 

2.  A  Protective  Tariff  is  not  desirable. 

3.  Trusts  do  harm. 

4.  Trusts  do  good. 

5.  Socialism  is  desirable. 

6.  Socialism  is  undesirable. 

7.  Prohibition  is  just. 

8.  Prohibition  is  not  just. 


366  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

Exercise  8. 

Wliich,  if  any,  of  the  following  assertions  would  prop- 
erly demand  Testimony  for  Belief: 

1.  It  is  necessary  to  practice  deceit  in  order  to  suc- 
ceed in  business. 

2.  It  is  not  necessary  to  practice  deceit  in  order  to  suc- 
ceed in  business. 

3.  Man  is  governed  most  by  his  innate  tendencies. 

4.  Few  people  live  their  convictions. 

5.  Capital  punishment  should  be  abolished. 

Exercise  9. 

From  newspaper  or  magazine  make  three  clippings  in 
each  of  which  Testimony  is  used  for  Belief ;  indicate  same 
and  say  if,  in  your  judgment,  the  Testimony  is  adequate, 
and  if  so,  why?  If  not,  why  not,  and  how  would  you 
correct  ? 

Exercise  10. 

With  the  aim  of  securing  Action  support  each  of  the 
following  assertions  by  one  Testimony,  and  indicate  the 
Impelling  Motives  used: 

1.  College  education  pays. 

2.  College  education  does  not  pay. 

3.  Government  ownership  of  railroads  is  wise. 

4.  Life  insurance  is  desirable. 

5.  Municipal  ownership  is  needed. 

6.  There  should  be  free  text-books  in  the  public  schools. 

Exercise  11. 

Which,  if  any,  of  the  following  assertions  would  prop- 
erly demand  Testimony  for  Action  with  average  audience : 

1.  The  United  States  Government  should  irrigate  the 
western  deserts. 

2.  The  United  States  should  make  reciprocity  treaties. 


EXERCISES  267 

3.  Senators  should  be  elected  by  direct  vote  of  the 
people. 

4.  Follow  your  conscience. 

5.  Join  a  party. 

Exercise  12. 

From  newspaper  or  magazine  make  three  clippings  in 
each  of  which  Testimony  is  used  for  Action;  indicate  same 
and  the  Impelling  Motives  used,  and  say  if,  in  your  judg- 
ment, the  Testimony  is  adequate,  and  if  so,  why  ?  If  not, 
why  not,  and  how  would  you  correct? 

Exercise  13. 

With  the  aim  of  securing  adequate  Entertainment  sup- 
port each  of  the  following  assertions  with  one  Testimony, 
and  state  the  Factor  or  Factors  of  Interestingness  used : 

1.  Travel  gives  pleasure. 

2.  The  stage  entertains. 

3.  Dickens  is  interesting. 

4.  Tennyson  is  a  fine  poet. 

Exercise  14. 

WTiich,  if  any,  of  the  following  assertions  would  prop- 
erly demand  Testimony  to  make  them  adequately  enter- 
taining to  average  listener: 

1.  The  railroad  has  revolutionized  civilization. 

2.  The  press  has  a  grand  future. 

3.  There  are  dramatic  moments  in  prospecting. 

4.  There  have  been  great  hours  in  the  history  of  labor 
unions. 

5.  Genius  has  joys. 

Exercise  15. 

From  newspaper  or  magazine  make  thrre  clippings  in 
each  of  which  Testimony  is  used  for  Entertainment ;  indi- 
cate same  and  the  Factors  used,  and  say  if.  in  your  iudi^- 


268  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

ment,  the  Testimony  is  adequate,  and  if  so,  why  ?    If  not, 
why  not,  and  how  would  you  correct  ? 

EXEECISES  FOE  CHAPTER  XVI. 
The  Four  Forms  of  Support. 

Exercise  1. 

What  Form  of  Support  would  best  attain  Clearness  for 
each  of  the  following : 

1.  He  was  wise. 

2.  He  was  aggressive. 

3.  It  was  a  fine  novel. 

4.  The  age  was  spiritual. 

5.  It  was  a  great  painting. 

6.  He  was  of  the  Impressionist  school. 

7.  Corporations  have  no  souls. 

Exercise  2. 

What  Form  of  Support  would  best  attain  Impressiveness 
for  each  of  the  following: 

1.  Intemperance  is  debasing. 

2.  He  was  a  hypocrite. 

3.  Capital  aids  one's  progress. 

4.  He  was  truly  religious, 

5.  Public  opinion  is  often  in  the  wrong. 

6.  Obey  the  still,  small  voice. 

Exercise  3. 

What  Form  of  Support  does  each  of  the  following  asser- 
tions demand  in  order  to  attain  Belief: 

1.  Wrong  is  finally  punished. 

2.  The  trade  union  is  a  benefit  to  workingmen. 

3.  Political  corruption  exists. 

4.  Advertising  pays. 

5.  Corporations  reduce  cost  of  commodities. 


EXERCISES  fOf 

Exercise  4. 

What  Form  of  Support  does  each  of  the  following  asser- 
tions demand  in  order  to  attain  Action : 

1.  Health  is  preferable  to  wealth. 

2.  Take  time  for  daily  recreation. 

3.  The  intelligent  conscience  is  the  best  guide  in  voting. 

4.  Self  control  is  admirable. 

5.  Early  rising  is  wise. 

Exercise  5. 

What  Form  of  Support  would  best  attain  Entertainment 
for  each  of  the  following: 

1.  Good  music  charms. 

2.  Shakespeare  is  entertaining. 

3.  Switzerland  is  a  beautiful  country. 

4.  Great  oratory  fascinates. 

5.  An  ocean  storm  is  sublime. 

6.  Some  lecturers  have  interesting  personalities. 

Exercise  6. 

Support    by    Restatement,    General    Illustration    and 
Specific  Instance,  each  of  the  following: 

1.  Labor  unions  are  a  power. 

2.  Mankind  is  progressing. 

3.  Lincoln  was  a  great  statesman. 

4.  Competition  helps  trade. 

5.  Monopoly  hurts  trade. 

6.  The  sword  has  done  harm. 

7.  He  was  a  great  writer. 

8.  She  was  an  ideal  woman. 

9.  Alexander  Hamilton  rendered  valuable  services  t» 
the  United  States. 

10.  Times  were  hard. 

11.  The  day  was  extremely  cold. 


270  EFrECTIVE  SPEAKING 

12.  The  battle  was  terrible. 

13.  Character  is  a  great  force  in  society. 

14.  Business  is  sensitive. 

15.  England  is  a  great  country. 

16.  Astronomy  is  a  great  study. 

17.  The  world  owes  much  to  preachers. 

Exercise  7. 

Make  five  clippings  from  newspaper  or  magazine  in 
which  the  two  or  more  of  the  Forms  of  Support  are  used, 
and  indicate  same,  and  say  if  wisely  used,  and  why?  If 
not  well  chosen,  state  why,  and  say  how  you  would  correct. 

EXEECISES  FOR  CHAPTER  XVII. 
the  statement  of  aim  and  the  central  idea. 

Exercise  1. 
From  each  of  the  following  General  Subjects  choose  a 
General  End,  a  Statement  of  Aim,  and  a  Central  Idea : 


1. 

Opportunity. 

2. 

Morals. 

3. 

Education. 

4. 

Patriotism. 

0. 

Taxation. 

6. 

Public  Opinion. 

7. 

The  Press. 

8. 

George  Washington. 

9. 

The  Slums. 

10. 

Alexander  Hamilton. 

Exercise  2. 

From  each  of  the  following  General  Subjects  choose  a 
(Jeneral  End,  a  Statement  of  Aim,  a  Central  Idea,  and 
Obverse  of  Central  Idea: 

1.     Trusts. 


EXERCISES  271 

3.  Culture. 

3.  Speculation. 

4.  Benjamin  Franklin. 

5.  The  Vote  Seller. 

Exercise  3. 
"With  the  General  End  Belief  set  down  three  to  five 
General  Illustrations  and  Specific  Instances  for  each  of  the 
following,  and  indicate  which  would  make  the  best  Cen- 
tral Idea  for  a  half-hour  speech : 

1.  We  are  improving  in  morals. 

2.  The  Government  should  find  work  for  the  unem- 
ployed. 

3.  Woman  Suffrage  is  desirable. 

4.  Great  Fetes  help  trade. 

5.  It  is  a  fine  magazine. 

6.  Corporations  have  aided  civilization. 

7.  The  power  of  money  is  great. 

Exercise  4. 
For  each  of  the  following,  what  Central  Idea,  when 
developed,  would  come  most  vividly  into  the  experience  of 
average  audience? — 

End.  Statement  of  Aim. 

Belief.     1.     Corporations    should    be    under    the    direct 

supervision  of  the  national  government. 
Belief.     2.     Municipalities  should  own  and  operate  their 
street  railways. 

Exercise  5. 
Select  a  Statement  of  Aim  and  a  Central  Idea  for  each 
of   the   following,   with   a   view   to    Interestingness,   and 
indicate  the  Factors : 

1.  Vacation. 

2.  United  States. 

3.  Banks. 

4.  Duty. 


EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 


Exercise  6. 


Select  five  noted  speeches  and  set  down  the  Statement  of 
Aim  and  Central  Idea  of  each. 

Exercise  7. 

For  the  audiences  specified,  set  down  the  Central  Idea 
you  would  use  for  each  of  the  following  Statements  of 
Aim,  and  justify  your  choice:  also  indicate  your  General 
End: 

Statement  of  Aim.  Audience. 

Labor  unions  are  a  benefit      (a)  Labor  union  men. 

to  society.  (b)  Employers. 

(c)  Non-union  men. 

(d)  Average    general    au- 

dience. 

The  United  States  is  pro-      (a)  Merchants, 
gressing.  (b)  Workingmen. 

(c)  Average     general     au- 
dience. 

Exercise 

Set  down  a  Statement  of  Aim  for  each  of  the  follow- 
ing, and  also  a  Central  Idea  which  for  you  would  be 
generative,  and  indicate  why: 

1.  Athletics. 

2.  Politics. 

3.  Books. 

4.  Pluck. 


EXERCISES  273 

EXERCISES  FOR  CHAPTER  XVIII. 

the  central  idea  (continued). 

Exercise  1. 

From  each  of  the  General  Subjects  that  follow,  select  a 
Statement  of  Aim,  and  also  that  Central  Idea  which  you 
believe  would  most  likely  attain  your  purpose ;  and  justify 
your  choice  in  respect  to  the  Five  Requisites : 

General  End.  General  Subject. 

Entertainment.  Sweet  Sixteen. 

The  Bachelor. 

Optimism. 
A.ction.  Civil  Service  Reform. 

Capital  Punishment. 

The  Unemployed. 
Belief.  Strikes. 

The  Jury. 

The  Reformer, 
[mpreasiveness.  Mahomet. 


Aaron  Burr. 
Victor  Hugo. 


Time — Half  hour. 


Exercise  2. 


Set  down  the  Factors  of  Interestingness  to  be  found  in 
each  of  yonr  Central  Ideas  in  Exercise  1. 

Exercise  3. 

Set  down  the  Impelling  Motives  included  in  each  of 
your  Central  Ideas  for  the  General  Subjects  under  Action 
in  Exercise  I. 


274  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

Exercise  4, 

For  each  of  the  following  General  Subjects  determine  a 
General  End,  Statement  of  Aim,  and  also  a  Central  Idea, 
the  latter  to  involve  Comparison : 

1.  The  College. 

2.  The  Personal  Property  Tax. 

3.  Free  Trade. 

4.  Eeciprocity. 

5.  Election  of  Senators  by  Direct  "Vote  of  the  People. 

Exercise  5. 

Set  down  General  End,  Statement  of  Aim  and  Central 
Idea  for  each  of  the  following,  for : 
1  hour  speech. 
^  hour  speech. 
10  minute  speech. 

1.  Morals. 

2.  History. 

3.  Patriotism. 

4.  Success. 

(Average  general  audience.) 

,  EXERCISES  FOR  CHAPTER  XIX. 

the  sub-ideas. 

Exercise  1. 

From  each  group  of  Statements  of  Aim  that  follow, 
select  two  and  set  down : 

(a)  The  Central  Idea  best  suited  to  attain  your  purpose 
under  the  conditions  given. 

(b)  The  Obverse  of  Central  Idea. 

(c)  The  Sub-Ideas  you  would  use. 


EXERCISES 


275 


(d)  Indicate  by  1,  2,  3,  etc.  (1  being  highest),  the  rel- 
ative value  of  the  Sub-Ideas. 

(e)  The  Factors  of  Interestingness  that  your  Sub-Ideas 
possess. 

(f)  Where  Action  is  the  End,  the  Impelling  Motives 
that  your  Central  Idea  and  its  Sub-Ideas  possess. 


General  End. 
Action. 


Conditions. 


Statement  of  Aim. 


Audience  familiar       1.  Vote  for  Gov- 

with  topic  but  op-  ernment  Ownership 

posed    to   speaker's  of  Railroads, 
view. 


Action. 


Audience  familiar  2.  Tote  against 
with  topic  but  op-  Government  Own- 
posed  to  speaker's  ership  of  Eailroads. 
view. 


Action. 


Audience  familiar       3.  Vote  for  Wom- 
with  topic  but  op-   an  Suffrage. 
posed   to   speaker's 
view. 


Action, 


Audience  familiar       4.  Vote  against 
with  topic  but  op-   Woman  Suffrage, 
posed   to    speaker's 
view. 


Action. 


Audience  familiar        5.  Vote  for  Pro- 

with  topic  but  op-  liibition. 
posed    to    speaker's        6.  Vote     against 

view.  Prohibition. 


376 
Action. 


Belief. 


Belief. 


EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

Audience  familiar       7.  Be  honest  in 
with  topic  and  business, 
agreeing     with       8.  Be  charitable, 
speakers  view,  but       9.  Take  an  active 
do  not  act  upon  it.   interest  in  politics. 

Audience  familiar       10.  Be   persever- 
but  opposed  to   ing. 
speaker's  view.  11.  We  can  make 

our    own    opportu- 
nity to  succeed. 

12.  The  Govern- 
ment should  under- 
take Fire  and  Life 
Insurance. 

Audience  familiar       13.  Monopoly 
but   opposed   to   harms  trade, 
speaker's  view.  14.  Child    Labor 

is  an  evil. 


Impressiveness.         Audience  familiar       15.  Thomas  Jef- 
with  topic  and  agree   f erson  was  great, 
with  speaker's  view.       16.  Enter  prise 
wins. 

17.  Edison  was  a 
great  inventor. 

Impressiveness.  Audience  familiar  18.  Personality  is 
with  topic  and  agree  a  great  factor  in 
with  speaker's  view,    success. 

19.  Joan  of  Are 
was  a  real  patriot. 


EXERCISES  277 

Entertainment.         Audience  familiar       20.  Robt.  E.  Lee 
with  topic  and  agree    was  a  great  general, 
with  speaker's  view.       21.  The  imagina- 
tion is  a  source  of 
joy. 

22.  Shakespeare 
was  great. 

23.  Paul  Jones 
was  a  great  naval 
fighter. 

24.  We  should  be 
proud  of  America's 
(U.  S.)  history. 

Duration  of  Speech — 1  hour. 

Exercise  2. 

With  the  General  End  indicated  set  down  a  Statement 
of  Aim,  Central  Idea  and  Sub-Ideas,  for  each  of  the 
following : 

Action. 
Fashion. 
Arbitration. 
Socialism. 
Parcels  Post. 
Postal  Savings  Banks. 
Income  Tax. 
Belief. 
Public  Opinion. 
Wealth. 
The  Reformer. 
Prison  Labor. 

Impressiveness. 
The  Vote  Buyer. 
Libertv. 


378  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

The  Press. 

The  Pilgrim  Fathers. 

Michael  Angelo. 

Entertainment. 
Mark  Twain. 
Lincoln. 
Oratory. 
The  Drama. 

Exercise  3. 

(a)  Indicate  by  1,  2,  3,  etc.,  the  order  in  which  you  would 
use  the  Sub-Ideas  that  you  prepared  for  the  different 
Statements  of  Aim  in  Exercise  I,  Chapter  XIX. 

(b)  Also  arrange  Sub-Ideas  in  order  of  use  in  Exercise 
II,  Chapter  XIX. 

Exercise  4. 

Select  General  End,  Statement  of  Aim,  Central  Idea 
and  Sub-Ideas  from  the  following  General  Subjects,  and 
arrange  the  Sub-Ideas  in  the  order  you  believe  most  logical : 

1.  The  Young  Man's  Opportunity. 

2.  The  Trusts. 

3.  The  Slums. 

Exercise  5. 

Select  General  End,  Statement  of  Aim,  Central  Idea 
and  Sub-Ideas  from  the  following,  and  arrange  the  Sub- 
Ideas  in  the  order  you  believe  most  interesting : 

1.  America's  Future. 

2.  Speculation. 

3.  Worry. 

Exercise  6. 

Write  out  a  speech  of  about  fifteen  minutes'  length 
(about  1,500  words)  on  any  one  of  the  following  General 
Subjects,  paying  proper  attention  to  Statement  of  Aim, 


EXERCISES  279 

Central  Idea  and  Sub-Ideas,  and  to  all  of  the  suggestions 
and  laws  in  respect  to  effective  Amplification : 

1.  Socialism. 

2.  Lincoln. 

3.  Government  Ownership  of  Railroads. 

4.  Washington. 

5.  Personality. 

6.  Opportunity. 

EXERCISES  FOR  CHAPTER  XX. 
the  introduction  and  the  conclusion. 

Exercise  1. 

The  audience,  in  the  main,  being  opposed  to  the  propo- 
sition contained  in  the  Statements  of  Aim  given  below, 
prepare  an  Introduction  that  shall  realize  the  Four 
Requisites : 

(a)  Good  Will  Toward  Speaker. 

(b)  Statement  of  Purpose. 

(c)  Good  Will  Toward  Purpose. 

(d)  Interest  in  Development. 

1.  Prohibition  is  desirable. 

2.  Labor  unions  are  a  benefit  to  the  community. 

3.  The  government  should  own  and  operate  the  rail- 
roads. 

Exercise  2. 

Select  a  Statement  of  Aim  and  a  Central  Idea  from  the 
following  and  prepare  an  Introduction  that  will  arouse 
interest  in  the  development : 

1.  Character. 

2.  Aaron  Burr. 

3.  Optimism. 

4.  Jolin  IMarshall. 


280  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

EXERCISES  FOR  CHAPTER  XXI. 

ORATOfilCAL  STYLE. 

Exercise  1. 

Repetition. 

1.  Write  a  paragraph  on  each  of  the  following,  and  in 
it  use  liberally  Repetition: 


1. 

Labor  Unions. 

2. 

Suffrage. 

3. 

Patriotism. 

4. 

Republican  Party. 

5. 

Democratic  Party. 

6. 

Political  Corruption. 

7. 

The  Press. 

8. 

Justice. 

9. 

The  American  Citizen. 

0. 

Education. 

Exercise  3. 
Ridicule. 

Write  a  paragraph  of  Ridicule  on  each  of  the  following 
topics : 

1.  Newspaper  and  magazine  advice  as  to  what  to  eat, 
how  to  propose,  whom  to  marry,  etc.,  etc. 

2.  The  Trusts  seek  solely  the  best  interests  of  the 
people. 

3.  Labor  unions  seek  solely  the  best  interests  of  the 
community. 

4.  The  fop. 

5.  The  man  afraid  of  his  convictions. 

6.  Ghosts. 

7.  The  number  thirteen. 


EXERCISES  281 

8.  Friday. 

9.  So-called  "society." 
10.     National  egotism. 

Exercise  3. 

Originality  in  Thought  and  Expression. 

Ponder  over  each  of  the  following  and  develop  a  300  to 
500  word  talk  that  shall  avoid  triteness  in  thought  and 
style : 

1.  The  Acquisition  of  Knowledge. 

2.  The  Puritan. 

3.  Liberty. 

Exercise  4. 

Contract. 

Make  a  list  of  twenty-five  words  and  their  opposites. 

Exercise  5. 
Contrast. 
Make  a  list  of  fifteen  assertions  and  their  opposites. 

Exercise  6. 

Contrast. 
On  each  of  the  following  write  a  paragraph  contrasting 
the  topics  mentioned : 

1.  Free  Trade  and  Protection. 

2.  Washington  and  Napoleon. 

3.  Peace  and  War. 

4.  Monopoly  and  Competition. 

5.  Energy  and  Indolence. 

6.  Living  within  one's  means ;  living  beyond  it. 

7.  True  Patriotism  and  False  Patriotism. 

Exercise  7. 
Comparison. 
Compare  in  a  paragraph  the  following : 


282  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

1.     The  American  War  of  Kevolution  and  the  American 
Civil  War. 

3.     Today  and  Fifty  Years  Ago. 

Exercise  8. 

Comparison  and  Contrast. 

In  a  paragraph  compare  and  contrast  the  following : 

1.  Washington  and  Lincoln. 

2.  England  and  the  United  States. 

3.  The  Married  Man  and  the  Bachelor. 

4.  Grant  and  Lee. 

Exercise  9. 
Climax. 
Write  a  Climax,  of  the  kind  indicated,  for  each  of  the 
following : 

Perfect  climax: 

United  States. 
Courage. 
Napoleon. 
Suspended  climax: 
Strikes. 

Exercise  10. 
Interrogation. 
Write  a  paragraph  on  each  of  the  following,  using,  in 
the  main,  Interrogation : 

1.  Woman  Suffrage. 

2.  The  decadence  of  chivalry. 

3.  The  evils  of  monopoly. 

Exercise  11. 
Epithet. 
Give  an  epithet,  favorable  or  unfavorable,  for  each  of 
the  following : 

1.     Washington. 


EXERCISES  283 

3.  Lincoln. 

3.  Kichard  III. 

4.  Kichelieu. 

5.  The  Republican  Party. 

6.  The  Democratic  Party. 

7.  The  Prohibition  Party. 

8.  The  Socialist  Party. 

9.  The  man  who  is  always  in  debt. 

10.  The  man  who  is  always  late  for  his  appointment, 

11.  The  man  who  exacts  the  last  penny. 

12.  The  woman  who  is  always  dealing  in  scandal. 


EXEECISES  FOR  CHAPTER  XXII. 
self-questioning. 

Exercise  1. 

1.  By  the  use  of  "what,"  examine  the  terms  in  the  fol- 
lowing propositions  and  set  down  clearly  their  full  signifi- 
cance, after  the  manner  shown  in  Chapter  XXII. 

1.  The  young  man  of  today  has  opportunities  to  suc- 
ceed equal  to  those  of  the  young  man  of  forty  years  ago. 

2.  The  world  is  improving  in  morals. 

3.  Trusts  do  more  harm  than  good. 

Exercise  2. 

Apply  the  queries — What?  Why?  How?  When?  Where? 
Who  ? — to  the  following,  and  set  down  briefly  your  results : 

1.  Competition  is  wise. 

2.  Taxation  is  necessary. 

3.  American  enterprise  is  extraordinary. 

4.  Education. 

5.  The  Jury. 


284  effective  speaking 

Exercise  3. 

Apply  the  Queries — Origin?  Nature?  Functions  or  Pur- 
pose ?  Requisites  to  Efficiency  ?  Effects  or  Results  ? — to  the 
following,  and  note  down  briefly  your  results : 

3.     Municipal  Ownership. 

2,  Woman  Suffrage. 

3.  Party  Allegiance. 

Exercise  4. 

Apply  the  Third  Series  of  Queries — Spiritually  ?  Moral- 
ly? etc. — to  the  following,  and  set  down  briefly  your 
results : 

1.  The  American  Citizen. 

2.  Washington. 

3.  Socialism. 

4.  Lincoln. 

5.  Prohibition. 

6.  Trusts. 

7.  The  Eight  Hour  Day. 

EXERCISES  FOR  CHAPTER  XXIII. 

READING. 

Exercise  1. 
Send  in  three  clippings  from  newspaper  or  magazine  in 
which  there  are  Supported  and  Unsupported  Assertions, 
and  indicate  same. 

Exercise  2. 
Send  in  one  clipping  from  newspaper  or  magazine  in 
which  there  are  two  or  more  Unsupported  Assertions  that 
you  believe  need  support  to  attain  the  desired  End. 

Exercise  3. 
Send  in  three  examples  of  illustrative  matter,  and  state 
what  fact  or  facts  each  illustrates. 


exercises  286 

Exercise  4. 
Head  the   article   on   "Lincoln"   in    the   Encyclopaedia 
Britannica  and  set  down  briefly  the  data  in  the  article  that 
you  deem  of  value  to  you  for  a  speech  on  "The  Greatness 
of  Abraham  Lincoln." 

Exercise  5. 
Make  an  outline  of  the  article  on  "Washington"  in  the 
Encyclopaedia  Britannica. 

Exercise  6. 
Resolve    the    following    into    Specific    Instances    and 
arrange  them: 

1.  By  Nearness  in  Distance: 

a.  The  world's  nations. 

b.  American  cities. 

2.  By  Nearness  in  Time: 

a.  The  world's  great  generals. 

b.  The  world's  great  statesmen. 

3.  By  Order  of  Importance : 

a.  The  world's  great  poets. 

b.  The  world's  great  nations  of  today. 

Exercise  7. 

Resolve  the   following   into   Greneral   Illustrations   and 
arrange  them  so  that  each  will  suggest  to  you  the  next : 

1.  Flowers. 

2.  Fruits. 

3.  Metals. 

4.  Places  of  abode. 

5.  A  menu. 

Exercise  8. 

Develop  briefly  and  arrange  by  cause  and  efl!ect: 

1.  A  runaway  resulting  in  death. 

2.  A  Quarrel. 


286  effective  speaking 

Exercise  9. 

Set  down  Statement  of  Aim,  Central  Idea  and  Sub- 
Ideas  for  following  topics,  and  arrange  the  Sub-Ideas  so 
that  each  will  suggest  to  you,  at  once,  the  next : 


1. 

2. 
3. 
4. 

Municipal  Ownership, 
Profit  Sharing. 
Money. 
Home. 

5. 

The  Militia. 

6. 

Patriotism. 

7. 

The  Law. 

EXEECISES  FOR  CHAPTER  XXIV. 
the  after  dinner  speech. 

Exercise  1. 

Imagine  an  appropriate  occasion  and  respond  in  a  five 
to  ten  minute  speech,  to  two  toasts  selected  from  the  fol- 
lowing : 

1.  The  American  Citizen. 

2.  The  Bachelor. 

3.  The  Engaged. 

4.  The  American  Flag. 

5.  Sweet  Sixteen. 

6.  The  Business  Man. 

SUPPLEMENTARY. 

Exercise  1. 

From  one  of  the  four  Statements  of  Aim  that  follow 
develop  a  speech  with  the  General  End  Action.  Speech  to 
be  between  1,500  and  2,000  words,  and  to  exemplify  the 
principles  developed  in  this  book : 


EXERCISES  287 

1.  Vote  for  Socialism. 

2.  Vote  against  Socialism. 

3.  Vote  for  Prohibition. 

4.  Vote  against  Prohibition, 

Exercise  2. 

From  one  of  the  two  Statements  of  Aim  that  follow 
development  a  speech  with  the  General  End  Entertain- 
ment. Speech  to  be  between  1,500  and  3,000  words,  and  to 
exemplify  the  principles  developed  in  this  book : 

1.  American  history  is  interesting. 

2.  Shakespeare  was  great. 

Exercise  3. 

From  one  of  the  two  Statements  of  Aim  that  follow 
develop  a  speech  with  the  General  End  Belief.  Speech  to 
be  between  1,500  and  2,000  words,  and  to  exemplify  the 
principles  developed  in  this  book : 

1.  Innate  tendencies  shape  our  lives  more  than  en- 
vironment (or  vice  versa). 

2.  A  representative  should  vote  according  to  the  wishes 
of  his  constituents  who  elected  him. 

Exercise  4. 

From  one  of  the  two  Statements  of  Aim  that  follow 
develop  a  speech  with  the  General  End  Impressiveneas. 
Speech  to  be  between  1,500  and  2,000  words,  and  to  exem- 
plify the  principles  developed  in  this  book : 

1.  Lincoln  was  great. 

2.  Personality  is  a  great  factor  in  success. 


STUDIES  IN  STYLE  AND 
STRUCTURE. 


LIST  OF  STUDIES  IN  STYLE  AND  STRUCTURE 

FOR 
READING  AND  ANALYSIS. 


WILLIAM  SHAKESPEASE. 

Mark   Antony's    Oration Julius  Ctesar,  Act  3,  Scene  2 

Speech  of  Brutus  in  Forum Julius  Caesar,  Act  3,  Scene  2 

Mark  Antony  on  Cassar's  Body. .  .Julius  Csesar,  Act  3,  Scene  1 

Cassius    Instigating    Brutus Julius  Ccesar,  Act  1,  Scene  2 

Marullus  to  tho  People Julius  Caesar,  Act  1,  Scene  1 

Tamora's  Plea  for  Her  Son. .  .Titus  Andronicus,  Act  1,  Scene  1 

Soliloquy  of  Lady  Macbeth Macbeth  Act  1,  Sene  5 

The  Instigation  Scene Macbeth,  Act  1,  Scene  7 

Othello's  Defence Othello,  Act  1,  Scene  3 

Othello's  Farewell  to  Happiness Othello,  Act  3,  Scene  2 

Polonius    to   Laertes Hamlet,  Act  1,  Scene  3 

Hamlet's    Self-Condemnation Hamlet,  Act  2,  Scene  2 

Hamlet's   Soliloquy   on   Death Hamlet,  Act  3,  Scene  1 

Hamlet's  Advice  to  the  Players Hamlet,  Act  3,  Scene  2 

Hamlet  and  His  Mother Hamlet,  Act  3,  Scene  4 

Queen    Mab Romeo  and  Juliet.  Act  1,  Scene  4 

Bomeo  to  Juliet Romeo  and  Juliet,  Act  2,  Scene  2 

Ooriolanus'  Scorn  of  the  People Coriolanus,  Act  3,  Scene  3 

Cominius   on   Coriolanus Coriolanus,  Act  2,  Scene  2 

Nestor   on   Adversity Troilus  and  Cressida,  Act  1,  Scene  3 

Ulysses  on  the  Grecian  Failure Troilus  and  Cressida, 

Act  1,  Scene  3 
Ulysses  on  Man's  Forgetfulness Troilus  and  Cressida, 

Act  3,  Scene  3 

Appeal  of  Queen  Katherine Hpnry  VTIT,  Act  2,  Scene  4 

291 


292 


EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 


Wolsey  on  His  Fall Henry  VIII,  Act  3,  Scene  2 

Cranmer's  Prophecy Henry  VIII,  Act  5,  Scene  5 

Bassauio  and  the  Caskets The  Merchant  of  Venice 

Act  3,  Scene  2 
Lorenzo   and   Jessica The  Merchant  of  Venice, 

Act  5,  Scene  1 

Tltania  and  Oberon A  Midsummer  Night's  Dream, 

Act  2,  Scene  1 
Frospero  Abjures  Magic The  Tempest,  Act  5,  Scene  1 


Bichard's    Faith Richard  II,  Act  3 

Sichard  on  the  HoUowness  of  Power.  .Eichard  II,  Act 

York  on  Bolingbroke Richard  II,  Act  5 

Hotspur's    Fop I    Henry  IV,  Act 

Lady  Percy's  Concern I    Henry  IV,  Act 

King  Henry's  Expostulation I    Henry  IV,  Act 

The   Prince's   Promise I    Henry  IV,  Act 

Falstaff  on  His  Soldiers I    Henry  IV,  Act 

The  Plea  of  Lady  Percy II 

King  Henry  on   Sleep II 

King  Henry  to  His  Son II 

Henry  V  to  the  Lord  Chief  Justice .  II 

The  Kingdom  of  the  Bees Henry  V,  Act 

Henry  V  before  Harfleur Henry  V,  Act 

Henry  VI  on  the  Peasant's  Life.  Ill   Henry  VI,  Act 

Warwick  at  Bamet Ill   Henry  VI,  Act 

Queen  Margaret  at  Tewkesbury. Ill   Henry  VI,  Act 

Gloucester's    Soliloquy Eichard  III,  Act 

The  Dream  of  Clarence Richard  III,  Act 

Bichard's   Despair Richard  III,  Act 

Bichard's  Address  to  His  Soldiers.  .Richard  III,  Act 
Gloucester  and  Lady  Anne Richard  III,  Act 


Henry  IV,  Act 
Henry  IV,  Act 
Henry  IV,  Act 
Henry  IV,  Act 


Scene  2 
3,  Scene  2 
Scene  2 
Scene 
Scene 
Scene 
Scene 
Scene 
Scene 
Scene 
Scene 
Scene 
Scene 
Scene 
Scene 
Scene 
Scene 
Scene 
Scene 
Scene 
Scene 
Scene 


JOHN  MILTON. 

Book  I Paradise  Loot 

Book  II Paradise  Lost 

Book  IV Paradise  Lost 

Book  VI Paradise  Lost 

DANTE  ALIGHIEBI. 

Canto  III Hell,  The  Divine  Comedy 

Canto  V Hell,  The  Divine  Comedy 


LIST  OF  STUDIES  293 

Canto  XIII Hell,  The  Divine  Comedy- 
Canto  XVII Hell,  The  Divine  Comedy 

Canto  XXI Hell,  The  Divine  Comedy 

Canto  XXV. Hell,  The  Divine  Comedy 

Canto  XXVIII Hell,  The  Divine  Comedy 

Canto  XXXni Hell,  The  Divine  Comedy 

Canto  XXXIV Hell,  The  Divine  Comedy 

Canto  VI Purgatory,  The  Divine  Comedy 

Canto  IX Purgatory,  The  Divine  Comedy 

Canto  XXIX Purgatory,  The  Divine  Comedy 

Canto  XXX Purgatory,  The  Divine  Comedy 

Canto  XXXI Purgatory,  The  Divine  Comedy 

Canto  XXXII Purgatory,  The  Divine  Ctomedy 

THE  BIBLE. 

Oration  of  Moses Deuteronomy,  Chapter  XXVIII 

The  Great  Arraignment Isaiah,  Chapter  I 

The  Covenant  with  Death Isaiah,  Chapter  XXVIII 

The  Destruction Isaiah,  Chapter  XXXIV 

The  Restoration Isaiah,  Chapter  XXXV 

The  Sword  of  the  Lord Ezekiel,  Chapter  XXI 

The  Fall  of  Tyre Ezekiel,  Chapter  XXVII 

The  Sermon  on  the  Mount Matthew,  Chapters  V,  VI,  VII 

Paul  Before  Agrippa Acts,  Chapter  XXVI 

Charity I    Corinthians,   Chapter   XIII 

The  Argument  for  Resurrection I  Corinthians,  Chapter  XV 

LECTURES    AND    OCCASIONAL    ADDRESSES. 

Matthew  Arnold The  Majority  and  the  Remnant 

Robert  Collyer Clear  Grit 

Ralph  Waldo  Emerson The  Conservative  and  the  Reformer 

Ralph  Waldo  Emerson The  American  Scholar 

James  A.  Froude Science  of  History 

John   Ruskin Work 

E.  P.  Whipple Wit  and  Humor 

N.  Dwlght  Hillis John  Euskin 

William  E.   Channing Self-Culture 

Henry  Van  Dyke Salt 

James  A.  Lowell Democracy 

William  Hazlitt The  Living  Poets 

Edward  Everett Vegetable  and  Mineral  Gold 


294  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

Edward  Everett Phi  Beta  Kappa  Oration 

Henry  W.  Grady The  New  South 

Augustine  Birrell Edmund  Burke 

George  W.  Curtis Sir  Philip  Sidney 

Frederic  W.  Farrar America 

John  B.  Gordon The  Last  Days  of  the  Confederacy 

Champ  Clark Aaron  Burr 

John  W.  Daniel Washington 

John   Fiske Columbus 

Victor  Hugo Voltaire 

Henry    Irving Macbeth 

Henry  M.  Stanley Through  the  Great  Forest 

William    Thackeray Swift 

Henry   Watterson Lincoln 

Lord  Rosebery Robert  Burns 

Eobert  G.  Ingersoll Shakespeare 

Andrew  White History 

Felix  Adler Marcus  Aurelius 

George  Bancroft The  People 

Joseph   Chamberlain Patriotism 

Cyrus  W.  Field The  Atlantic  Cable 

George  J.  Goschen The  Uses  of  the  Imagination 

R.  H.  Conwell Acres  of  Diamonds 

J.  Thomas  Fields Masters  of  the  Situation 

Wendell  Phillips The  Lost  Arts 

Wendell  Phillips Toussaint  L  'Ouverture 

Cardinal  Newman Knowledge  and  Learning 

Garrett  P.  Serviss Napoleon  Bonaparte 

Sargent  Prentiss Lafayette 

John  Lord Oliver   Cromwell 

David  R.  Locke In  Search  of  the  Man  of  Sin 

T.  DeWitt  Talmage Big  Blunders 

T.  Starr  EZing Shadows  and  Substance 

Thomas    Carlyle Mahomet 

Rufus  Choate Daniel  Webster 

George  Bancroft Andrew  Jackson 

Daniel  Webster Adams  and  Jefferson 

Daniel  Webster Plymouth  Oration 

Harrison  Gray  Otis Alexander  Hamilton 

John  Qulncy  Adams Oration  at  Plymouth 

Louis  Kossuth Speech  at  Faneuil  Hall,  Boston 


LIST  OF  STUDIES  295 


Francois  Gulzot Civilization  and  the  Individual  Man 

Oiuseppe  Mazzini To  the  Young  Men  of  Italy 

William  M.  Thackeray Charity  and  Humor 

Lord  Coleridge The  Law3  of  Property 

Matthew  Arnold Ralph  Waldo  Emerson 

David  Dudley  Field An  International  Code  of  Arbitration 

Henry  W.  Bellows William  Cullen  Bryant 

John  B.  Gough Temperance  Speech  at  Boston 

William  M.  Evarts What  the  Age  Owes  to  America 

Edward  Everett  Hale Sons  of  Massachusetts 

James  G.  Blaine Oration  on  Garfield 

Theodore  Roosevelt The  Strenuous  Life 

POLITICAL. 

Demosthenes On  the  Crown 

Cicero Second  Oration  Against  Cataline 

Mirabeau Necker  's  Financial  Policy 

Lord  Chatham On  American  Affairs,  May  30,  1777 

Edmund  Burke Speech  at  Bristol,  September  6,  1780 

Edmund  Burke On  Conciliation  With  America 

Daniel  O'Connell Ireland  Worth  Dying  For 

Henry  Grattan A  Declaration  of  Irish  Eight 

George  Canning On  the  Fall  of  Bonaparte 

Richard  B.  Sheridan Warren  Hastings 

Charles  J.  Fox Rejection  of  Bonaparte's  Overtures 

William  Pitt Abolition  of  the  Slave  Trade 

Oliver  Cromwell.  .At  the  Opening  of  First  Protective  Parliament 
Lord  Mansfield.  .On  a  Bill  Depriving  Peers  of  Certain  Privileges 

Isaac  Barrd "  America 's  Obligation  to  England ' ' 

Junius Letter  to  the  Duke  of  Bedford,  September  19,  1769 

Jimius Letter  to  the  Duke  of  Grafton,  February  14,  1770 

Lord  Belhaven 

.  . .  .Against  the  Legislative  Union  of  England  and  Scotland 

William  Pulteney On  Reducing  the  Army 

Lord  Chesterfield Against  Licensing  Gin  Shops 

Robespierre Against  Granting  the  King  a  Trial 

William  Wilberforce The  British  Slave  Trade 

Bulwer-Lytton On  the  Crimean  War 

Lord   Maoaulay Jewish   Disabilities 

Lord  Brougham Negro  Emanoipation 

Sir  Robert  Peel On  the  Repeal  of  th»  Corn  Laws 


296  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

Sichard  L.  Shiel Jewish  Disabilities 

William  E.  Gladstone 

On  Domestic  and  Foreign  Affairs,  November,  1879 

Sir  Wilfred  Laurier On  the  Death  of  Queen  Victoria 

John  Bright , The  Trent  Afifair 

Sir  John  A.  Macdonald On  Canadian  Confederation 

Lord   Beaconsfield "Conservatism" 

Bichard  Oobden On  the  Corn  Laws 

John  Morley Home  Eule 

George  Washington Farewell  Address 

John  Hancock The  Boston  Massacre 

Thomas  JeflFerson First  Inaugural  Address 

John  Jay To  the  People  of  Great  Britain 

Fisher  Ames On  the  British  Treaty 

Patrick  Henry "Give  Me  Liberty  or  Give  Me  Death" 

Andrew  Jackson Second  Inaugural  Address 

Benjamin  Franklin Dangers  of  a  Salaried  Bureaucracy 

Samuel  Ada.ms American  Independence 

Henry  Clay "The  American  System" 

Daniel  Webster Reply  to  Hayne 

John  O.  Calhoim The  Slavery  Question 

Abraham  Lincoln Gettysburg  Address 

Abraham  Lincoln Speech  at  Cooper  Institute 

William  Lloyd  Garrison Encouragement  to  the  Oppressed 

Charles  F.  Adams On  the  States  and  the  Union 

Carl  Schurz The  Policy  of  Imperialism 

James  Proctor  BLnott Duluth 

William  Jennings  Bryan The  Cross  of  Gold 

Albert  J.  Beveridge The  March  of  the  Flag 

Theodore  Parker The  State  of  the  Nation 

Charles  Sumner The  Crime  Against  Kansas 

Stephen  A.  Douglas Speech  at  Ottawa,  August  21,  1858 

SEBMONS. 

Tertullian The  Duty  and  Rewards  of  Patience 

Chrysostom Excessive  Grief  at  the  Death  of  Friends 

St.  Augustine The  Recovery  of  Sight  to  the  Blind 

Hugh  Latimer The  Sermon  of  the  Plow 

John  Bunyan The  Barren  Fig  Tree 

John  Tillotson The  Resurrection 

Isaac  Barrow The  Crucifixion  of  Chriit 


LIST  OF  STUDIES  297 

Robert  South The  Imagp  of  God  in  Man 

John  Wesley The  Great  Assize 

George  Whitefield The  Kingdom  of  God 

Robert   Hall Modern    Infidelity 

Martin  Luther The  Methods  and  Fruits  of  Justification 

James  Benique   Bossuet 

I^ineral  Oration  Over  the  Prince  of  Conde 

Louis  Bourdaloue The   Passion    of   Jesus   Christ 

Fenelon The  Saints  Converse  With  God 

John  Baptlste  MassiUon The  Small  Number  of  the  Saved 

John  Knox The  Source  and  Bounds  of  Kingly  Power 

Thomas  Chalmers. . ,  .The  Expulsive  Power  of  a  New  Affection 

Jonathan  Edwards Sinners  in  the  Hands  of  an  Angry  God 

Adolphe  Monod The    Endearing    Attribute 

Ellphalet  Nott The  Fall  of  Hamilton 

Lyman  Beecher The  Eemedy  for  Duelling 

Richard  S.  Storrs,  Jr.  . .  .The  Privilege  of  Communion  With  God 

Jabez  Bunting The  Guilt  of  Unbelief 

Thomas  Guthrie The  New  Heart 

Alexander  Duff Missions  the  Chief  End  of  the  Church 

Jeremy  Taylor The  Foolish  Exchange 

Henry  Ward  Beecher The  Strange  Woman 

Henry  Ward  Beecher Gamblers  and  Gambling 

Henry  Ward  Beecher The  Nature  of  Christ 

T.  DeWitt  Talmage As   the  Stars  Forever 

George  H.  Hepworth Happiness  in  Accord  With  Law 

James  McCosh Unity  With  Diversity 

Dwight   L.   Moody Faith 

Alexander  Maclaren The  Stone  of  Stumbling 

Alexander  Maclaren The    Resurrection 

Charles  H.  Spurgeon Songs  of  the  Night 

Joseph  Parker The  Future 

Frank  W.  Gunsaulus Isaiah 's  Vision  of  God 

Cardinal  Newman , .  .Communion  With  God 

William  E.  Ohanning The  Character  of  Christ 

Cardinal  Manning The  Triumph  of  the  Church 

Dean  Stanley Jesus  of  Nazareth 

Frederick  W.  Robertson The  Loneliness  of  Christ 

Charles  H.  Spurgeon On  the  Condescension  of  Christ 

Henry  Drummond On  the  Greatest  Thing  in  the  World 


298  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

Phillips  Brooks The  Beauty  of  a  Life  of  Service 

Phillips  Brooks The  Preeminence  of  Christianity 

MARTIAL. 

Giuseppe  Qarabaldi Speech  to  His  Soldiers 

Napoleon  Bonaparte To  His  Soldiers  on  Entering  Milan 

FORENSIC. 

Lord  Brougham In  Defence  of  Williams 

Lord  Erskine In  Defence  of  Stockdale 

Sir  James  Mackintosh In  Defence  of  Peltier 

William  Wirt Speech  in  the  Trial  of  Aaron  Burr 

Victor  Hugo Capital   Punishment 

Enule  Zola Appeal  for  Dreyfus 

AFTER-DINNER  SPEECHES. 

Oliver  Wendell  Holmes. . , Tribute  to  Paul  Morphy 

Henry  Ward  Beecher Merchants  and  Ministers 

Henry  Ward  Beecher. Religious   Freedom 

Joseph  H.  Choate ....   A    Test    Examination 

Joseph  H.  Choate The  Pilgrim  Mothers 

Mark  Twain. , New  England  Weather 

Mark  Twain Woman 

George  W.  Curtis Liberty  Under  Law 

George  W.  Curtis Noblesse    Oblige 

William  Jennings  Bryan America's  Mission 

Lord  Coleridge In  Golden  Chains 

Andrew  Carnegie The  Scotch  American 

Volumes  containing  the  Studies  given  in  the  foregoing  list 
will  be  found  in  the  majority  of  public  libraries.  Most  of  the 
speeches  can  be  found  in  the  collections  of  addresses  entitled 
"Modern  Eloquence,"  edited  by  Thomas  B.  Reed  (Morris  &  Co., 
Philadelphia);  "The  Library  of  Oratory,"  edited  by  Chauncey 
M.  Depew  (Globe  Publishing  Co.,  New  York);  "British  Elo- 
quence," edited  by  O.  A.  Goodrich;  "Pulpit  Eloquence"  (Funk 
&  Wagnalls,  New  York). 


QUESTIONS. 


QUESTIONS 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE    IMPORTANCE    OF    EFFECTIVE    SPEAKING. 

1.  Why  is  eflfectivenesa  in  speaking  important? 

2.  What  is  the  main  cause  of  ineffectiveness  in  speaking! 

3.  What  is  the  basis  of  success  in  speaking,  and  what  would 
be  the  effect  of  its  thorough  realization  f 

CHAPTER  II. 

THE   GENERAL  ENDS. 

1.  What  is  the  first  requisite  to  effectiveness  in  speaking? 

2.  State  the  views  of  leading  rhetoricians  in  regard  to  the 
General  Ends. 

3.  Name  the  General  Ends  of  speech. 

4.  Define  accurately  Clearness  as  an  End. 

5.  Give  a  good  example  of  Clearness  as  an  End. 

6.  Indicate  the  restrictions  of  Clearness. 

7.  Define  Impressiveness. 

8.  Give  two  examples  of  when  Impressiveness  is  the  speaker's 
General  End. 

9.  Define  Belief  as  a  General  End. 

10.  What  does  Belief  discuss! 

11.  Give  a  good  example  of  where  Belief  is  the  General  End. 

12.  Define  Action  and  say  when  it  is  the  speaker 's  End. 

13.  What  is  the  relative  importance  of  Action? 

14.  What,  sometimes,  are  the  preliminary  steps  where  Action 
is  the  General  End? 

15.  Give  an  example  where  Action  is  the  General  End. 

16.  Define    Entertainment    as    a    General    End    and    state    its 
specific  field. 

301 


308  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

17.  What  license  does  Entertainment  permit? 

18.  Give  an  example  where  the  General  End  is  Entertainment. 
19-     Show  by  the  subject  "Altruism"  the  distinction  between 

the  Five  General  Ends. 

20.  Specify  the  respective  mental  powers  to  which  the  varioua 
Ends  address  themselves. 

21.  Show  how  the  audience  may  govern  the  General  End. 

22.  By   two   examples   show   the   distinction   between   General 
Ends  and  means  to  an  End. 

23.  What  does  the  speaker  gain  from  the  determination  of  the 
General  End? 

24.  Specify  some  of  the  evils  that  may  follow  a  disregard  of 
the  General  End. 

25.  What  do  the  General  Ends  demand  from  the  speaker  in 
respect  to  his  speech? 

CHAPTEE  III. 

THE  PRINCIPLE  OP  REFERENCE  TO  EXPERIENCE. 

1.  What  is  the   essential   to   effectiveness  in    speaking,  next 
following  the  perception  of  the  General  Ends  of  speech? 

2.  What  is  the  foremost  of  the  principles? 

3.  Define  Eeference  to  Experience  and  give  an  example  of  it. 

4.  Name  the  kinds  of  experience  and  differentiate  them. 

5.  Give  at  least  three  reasons  why  Eeference  to  Experience 
is  important,  and  justify  each  by  illustrations. 

6.  Distinguish   the   objective   and  the   subjective   aspects   of 
speech. 

7.  State  convincingly  one  error  common  among  speakers. 

8.  State  the  great  law  governing  the  use  of  the  principle  of 
Reference  to  Experience,  and  justify  it  by  three  examples. 

9.  What  is  the  problem  of  the  speaker  in  respect  to  the  use 
of  the  principle  of  Eeference  to  Experience? 

10.  State  clearly  the  four  principles  governing  the  vividness 
of  an  experience,  and  give  original  illustrations  of  each. 

11.  Include    the    four    principles    governing    vividness    in    one 
general  law. 

12.  State  fully  the  especial  concern  of  the  speaker  in  respect 
to  the  acquisition  of  expeiienees. 

13.  What  must  the  speaker  always  keep  in  mind  in  respect  to 
the  modern  listener? 

14.  State  the  great  demand  made  upon  the  modern  speaker  if 


QUESTIONS  303 

he  would  fully  utilize  the  principle  of  Reference  to  Experience. 

15.  This  demand  (question  14)  met,  what  is  the  speaker's 
gainf 

CHAPTER  IV. 

REFERENCE  TO  EXPERIENCE  AND  THE  GENERAL  ENDS. 

1.  The  principle  of  Reference  to  Experience  understood  iv 
itself,  what  is  the  next  essential  to  effectiveness  in  speaking? 

2.  State  the  General  Law  governing  the  application  of  the 
principle  of  Reference  to  Experience  to  the  General  Ends? 

3.  What  does  Clearness  as  an  End  exclude? 

4.  State  fully  the  method  of  applying  Reference  to  Experi- 
ence to  attain  Clearness,  and  the  especial  caution  to  be  observed. 

5.  Give  three  examples. 

6.  What  governs  the  application  of  Reference  to  Experience 
when  feeling  is  the  especial  concern   (Impressiveness)  ? 

7.  Distinguish  between  the  application  of  Reference  to  Ex- 
perience to  Clearness  and  to  Impressiveness. 

8.  Mention  three  examples  of  Reference  to  Experience  ap- 
plied to  Impressiveness,  and  give  one  original  example. 

9.  State  fully  how  best  to  apply  Reference  to  Experience  to 
secure  Belief,  and  mention  six  examples. 

10.  Give  two  original  examples  of  Reference  to  Experience 
applied  to  Belief. 

11.  Recapitulate  the  application  of  Reference  to  Experience  to 
Clearness,  Impressiveness  and  Belief,  and  briefly  illustrate  by  the 
example  ' '  that  man  is  a  cynic. ' ' 

12.  Give  an  original  example  of  the  application  of  Reference 
to  Experience  to  Clearness,  Impressiveness  and  Belief. 

13.  Mention  some  of  the  consequences  of  failure  to  observe  the 
correct  use  of  Reference  to  Experience  in  respect  to  the  General 
Ends. 

CHAPTER  V. 

ACTION    AND    THE    IMPELLING    MOTIVES. 

1.  State  the  primary  requisite  to  the  effective  application  of 
Reference  to  Experience  to  the  attainment  of  Aotion;  define  the 
rjnpelling  Motives  and  give  a  working  classification  of  them. 

t.  Define  fully  the  Impelling  Motive  of  Self  Preservation  and 
'jiacuaa  and  exemplify  its  power. 


•304  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

3.  Define  fully  the  Impelling  Motive  of  Property  and  discuss 
and  exemplify  its  power. 

4.  Define,  discuss  and  exemplify  the  Impelling  Motives  of 
(a)  Power,  (b)  Reputation,  (c)  Affections,  (d)  Sentiments,  (e) 
Tastes, 

5.  Give  an  example  of  the  use  of  all  of  the  Motives  applied 
to  ' '  Vote  for  a  Protective  Tariff, ' '  and  include  the  Obverse  under 
each  Motive  (as  in  the  example,  "You  should  pay  your  bills"). 

6.  Give  the  Impelling  Motives  in  the  usual  order  of  their 
importance. 

7.  Discuss  the  relative  value  of  the  Impelling  Motives. 

8.  On  what  does  the  actional  power  of  the  Impelling  Motives 
depend  ? 

9.  Give  one  original  example  of  the  effective  use  of  an  Im- 
pelling Motive,  and  indicate  the  Motive  used. 

10.    Discuss  the  importance  of  the  development  of  skill  in  the 
use  of  the  Impelling  Motives. 

CHAPTEE  VI. 

ENTERTAINMENT   AND    THE    FACTOES    OP    INTERESTINQNSSS. 

1.  Define  Entertainment. 

2.  Give  the  Factors  of  Interestingness. 

3.  Explain  the  Vital,  exemplify  it  and  give  proof  of  its 
importance. 

4.  Define  the  Unusual,  discuss  its  place  and  nature,  and  illus- 
trate its  use. 

5.  Define  the  Uncertain. 

6.  Define  the  Antagonistic,  mention  some  of  the  things  it 
includes  and  illustrate  its  use. 

7.  Explain  fully  the  Similar  and  exemplify  it. 

8.  Define  the  Animate  and  illustrate  it. 

9.  Explain  the  Concrete  and  give  examples. 

10.  Give  an  example  showing  the  distinction  between  the  Seven 
Factors  and  illustrating  their  application. 

11.  Give  a  classic  example  of  the  use  of  the  Seven  Fact-ors 
and  prove  that  they  are  all  used. 

12.  Give  the  ordinary  ranking  of  the  Seven  Factors  and  dis- 
cuss their  power. 

13.  State  the  law  governi»g  effectiveness  in  the  use  of  the 
Seven  Factors  and  give  an  example  of  its  application  to  the  Vita 

14.  Explain  and  illustrate  the  application  of  Reference  to  Ex-, 
perienee  to  the  Unusual. 


QUESTIONS  305 

15.  Apply  the  principle  of  Beference  to  Experience  to  the 
Similar,  and  give  some  examples  that  prove  its  power  when  so 
applied. 

16.  Apply  Reference  to  Experience  to  the  Uncertain. 

17.  Apply  Reference  to  Experience  to  (a)  the  Antagonistic, 
(b)  the  Animate,  (c)  the  Concrete. 

18.  Of  two  references  to  experience  applied  to  a  Factor,  which 
is  the  more  powerful? 

19.  Discuss  the  importance  of  the  use  of  the  Factors,  and  show 
by  example  its  beneficial  effect  upon  the  selection  of  material. 

20.  Name  the  Factors  used  by  some  of  the  great  speakers  and 
writers. 

CHAPTER  VII. 

CUMULATION. 

1.  What  is  the  principle  governing  effectiveness  in  speech, 
next  in  importance  to  that  of  Reference  to  Experience?  (b)  De- 
fine it  and  (c)  give  an  example  of  its  use. 

2.  What  is  the  function  of  Cumulation? 

3.  State  fully  and  clearly  why  Cumulation  is  needed,  and 
show  the  conditions  governing  the  listener,  and  prove  that  Cumu- 
lation meets  these  conditions. 

4.  Give  some  illustrations  of  the  application  of  Cumulation. 

5.  State  clearly  the  law  governing  the  value  of  Cumulation. 

6.  State  the  three  demands  governing  the  use  of  Cumulation. 

7.  Mention  some  helps  in  the  development  of  skill  in  the  use 
of  Cumulation. 

8.  Give  three  original  examples  of  effective  Cumulation. 

9.  What  caution  must  be  observed  in  respect  to  Cumulation? 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

ASSERTIONS. 

1.  Into  what  does  the  major  portion  of  utterance  resolve 
itself,  and  give  examples. 

2.  For  what  purpose  do  we  make  assertions? 

3.  When  is  support  of  an  assertion  justified? 

4.  What  is  the  speaker's  main  concern? 

5.  State  the  Yoxa  Forms  of  Support. 


306  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

6.  Support  the  assertion.  "Greece  had  great  men,"  usiog 
the  Four  Forms. 

7.  What  is  the  great  task  of  the  speaker  in  the  attainmenV 
of  effectiveness? 

CHAPTER  IX. 

RESTATEMENT. 

1.  State  fully  the  nature  of  Restatement  and  give  examples. 

2.  What  is  the  value  of  Restatement? 

3.  State  when  Restatement  should  be  used  for  Clearness;  give 
thi'ee  examples  and  justify  them. 

4.  Specify  when  Restatement  should  be  used  for  Impressive- 
ness,  and  give  two  examples  and  justify  them. 

5.  When  should  Restatement  be  used  for  Belief,  and  give 
examples  and  justify  them? 

G.  Give  an  example  of  Restatement  to  secure  Belief  for  an 
assertion  outside  the  pale  of  actual  demonstration,  and  justify  it. 

7.  What  guiding  principle  must  always  be  followed  in  select- 
ing Restatements? 

CHAPTER  X. 

RESTATEMENT    (CONTINUED). 

1.  When  should  Restatement  be  used  for  Action? 

2.  Give  an  example  to  justify  the  use  of  Restatement  fop 
Action. 

3.  When  should  Restatement  be  used  for  Entertainment? 

4.  Give  three  examples  of  Restatement  used  for  Entertain- 
ment and  justify  their  use. 

5.  Name  the  two  kinds  of  Restatements  and  give  an  example 
of  Recurrent  Restatement  and  state  its  value. 

6.  Name  two  especial  uses  of  Restatement  and  give  examples. 

7.  State  when  Restatement  is  useful  in  the  form  of  pure 
repetition  and  give  an  example. 

8.  Upon  what  does  skill  in  Restatement  depend? 

9.  Upon  what  must  be  based  the  estimate  of  an  average 
audience? 

10.  Indicate    the    method    of    practice    in    the    attainment    of 
facility  in  Restatement. 

11.  Name  a  valuable  incidental  gain  from  the  practice  of  Be- 
statement. 

12.  What  warning  applies  to  Restatement? 


QUESTIONS  307 

CHAPTER  XI. 
GENERAL  ILLUSTRATION. 

1.  Define  and  exemplify  General  Illustration. 

2.  State  the  oflSce  of  General  Illustration. 

3.  State  when  General  Illustration  should  be  used  for  Clear- 
ness, and  give  an  example. 

4.  When  should  General  Illustration  be  used  for  Impressive- 
ness?    Give  examples  and  justify  them. 

5.  Mention  two  special  uses  of  General  Illustration  for  Ini- 
pressiveness  and  give  an  example  of  each  and  justify  same. 

6.  When  should  General  Illustration  be  used  for  Belief?    Give 
three  examples  and  justify  them. 

CHAPTER  XII. 

GENERAL  ILLUSTRATION    (CONTINUED). 

1.  When  should  General  Illustration  be  used  to  attain  Action? 
Give  three  examples  and  justify  them. 

2.  When  should  General  Illustration  be  used  for  Entertain- 
ment.   Give  an  example  and  justify  it. 

3.  What  is  the  great  requisite  to  skill  in  General  Illustration? 

4.  Explain  and  illustrate  the  power  of  the  Law  of  Association 
of  Ideas  in  its  relation  to  General  Illustration. 

5.  What  place  does  practice  occupy  in  the  attainment  of  skill 
in  General  Illustration,  and  indicate  an  effective  routine  of  drill. 

6.  State  a  subjective  requisite  to  skill  in  the  use  of  General 
Illustration,  and  prove  its  importance. 

7.  What  law  governs  the  effective  use  of  General  Illustration  1 
Give  an  example  of  its  application  and  justify  it. 

CHAPTEB  XIII. 

SPECIFIC   INSTANCE. 

1.  Define  Specific  Instance  and  show  the  difference  between 
General  Illustration  and  Specitic  Instance. 

2.  What  is  the  effect  of  Specific  Instauee  upon  listener  f 

3.  When  should  Specific  Instance  be  used  for  Clearness  f   Give 
two  examples  and  justify  them. 


308  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

4.  When  should  Specific  Instance  be  used  for  Impressivenessf 
Give  two  examples  and  justify  them. 

5.  When  should  Specific  Instance  be  used  for  Belief?  Give 
two  examples  and  justify  them. 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

SPECIFIC   INSTANCE    (CONTINUED). 

1.  When  should  Specific  Instance  be  used  for  Action  f  Give 
two  examples  and  justify  them. 

2.  When  should  Specific  Instance  be  used  for  Entertainment f 
Give  an  example  and  justify  it. 

3.  What  determines  the  relative  value  of  Specific  Instance? 
Illustrate. 

4.  State  fully  the  necessary  steps  in  the  attainment  of  pro- 
ficiency in  the  use  of  Specific  Instance. 

5.  Illustrate  the  manner  of  acquiring  data  for  Specific  In- 
stance. 

CHAPTER  XV. 

TESTIMONY. 

1.  Define  Testimony. 

2.  What  is  the  effect  of  Testimony  on  the  listener? 

3.  Give  an  exampls  of  the  effective  use  of  Testimony. 

4.  When  should  Testimony  be  used  for  Clearness.  Give  an 
example  and  justify  it. 

5.  W^hen  should  Testimony  be  used  for  Impressiveness  ?  Give 
an  example  and  justify  it. 

6.  When  should  Testimony  be  used  for  (a)  Belief,  (b) 
Action,  (c)  Entertainment,  and  give  an  example  of  each  and 
justify  it. 

7.  What  law  governs  the  selection  of  Testimony? 

8.  When  a  comparatively  unknown  authority  must  be  quoted 
what  should  be  done? 

9.  State  the  requisites  in  the  attainment  of  efliciency  in  the 
use  of  Testimony. 


QUESTIONS  309 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

THE   FOUR   FORMS   OF    SUPPORT. 

1.  Keview  clearly  yet  concisely  the  demands  of  the  General 
Ends  of  Speech  in  respect  to  the  Four  Forms  of  Support. 

2.  State  the  governing   law   when   Clearness,   Impressivenftss, 
etc.,  are  means  to  an  End,  and  give  an  example. 

3.  Is  it  wise  to  use  two  or  more  of  the  Four  Forms  of  Support 
in  cooperation?     Justify  your  answer. 

4.  Is  it  preferable  to  over-support  rather  than  under-support, 
and  if  so,  why? 

5.  What  should  be  the  usual  order  of  using  the  Forms  of  Sup- 
port, and  why? 

6.  Mention  two  examples  of  cooperative  use  of  three  of  the 
Forms  of  Support. 

CHAPTEB  XVII. 

THE   STATEMENT  OP  AIM  AND  THE   CENTRAL  IDEA. 

1.  Define  and  illustrate  the  Statement  of  Aim. 

2.  State  fully  the  value  of  the  Statement  of  Aim. 

3.  What  governs  the  scope  of  the  Statement  of  Aim? 

4.  The  Statement  of  Aim  determined,  what  is  the  next  step! 

5.  Define  and  illustrate  the  Central  Idea. 

6.  What  is  the  difference  between  the  Statement  of  Aim  and 
the  Central  Idea? 

7.  Why  is  it  advisable  to  sometimes  set  down  the  Obverse  of 
Central  Idea?     Illustrate. 

8.  State  the  general  value  of  the  Central  Idea. 

9.  Mention  some  instances   where   great  speakers  have  used 
the  Central  Idea. 

10.  What  is  the  place  of  the  General  Ends  in  respect  to  the 
Statement  of  Aim  and  the  Central  Idea? 

11.  When  is  the  omission  of  a  Central  Idea  justified? 

12.  When  may  the  Statement  of  Aim  be  used  as  the  Central 
Idea?    Give  an  original  example. 


310  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 

THE   CENTRAL    IDEA. 

1.  State  the  five  demands  a  Central  Idea  must  meet  in  order 
to  be  effective. 

2.  Explain  and  fully  illustrate  the  first  demand. 

3.  Explain  and  illustrate  the  application  of  the  principle  of 
Reference  to  Experience  to  the  Central  Idea. 

4.  Explain    and    illustrate    the    application    of    Reference    to 
Experience  to  the  Central  Idea  ^hen  the  speaker  seeks  Action. 

5.  Explain  fully  and  show  by  examples  why  the  scope  of  the 
Central  Idea  must  be  determined  carefully. 

6.  In  the  selection  of  the  Central  Idea  with  regard  to  scope 
what  governs  final  decision? 

7.  Have  great  speakers  paid  heed  to  the  scope  of  their  Central 
Idea?     If  so,  specify. 

8.  Explain  and  illustrate  fully  why  and  how  a  Central  Idea 
must  have  Interestingness. 

9.  State  why  and  how  a  Central  Idea  should  be  generative, 
and  give  examples. 

10.  When  should  the  Central  Idea  be  phrased  so  as  to  involve 
comparison  ? 

11.  Is  a  knowledge  of  audience  valuable  in  the  choice  of  the 
Central  Idea  and  why? 

12.  State  the  place  of  the  Four  Forms  of  Support  in  the  choice 
of  a  Central  Idea  and  give  an  original  illustration. 

13.  Give  a  recapitulation  of  the  main  points  in  Chapters  XVII 
and  XVIII. 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

THE   SUB-IDEAS. 

1.  Define  Sub-Ideas. 

2.  What  law  governs  the  selection  of  Sub-Ideas? 

3.  State    how    objections    to    your    Central    Idea    should    be 
treated,  and  illustrate  overcoming  an  objection. 

4.  What  is  the  best  way  to  overcome  a  misconception?     (b) 
An  impression  that  your  subject  is  of  little  importance? 

5.  Give  an  example  of  the  wise  selection  of  a  Sub-Idea. 

6.  Justify   the  selection   of   Sub-Ideas   by    the   principle   of 
Reference  to  Experience. 


QUESTIONS  311 

7.  Illustrate  an  effective  method  of  outline. 

8.  Explain   the   place   of   Interestingness   in   respect  to   Sub- 
Ideas. 

9.  What  is  the  demand  in  respect  to  the  Sub-Ideas  when  the 
end  is  Action? 

10.  "What  is  the  primary  law  governing  the  arrangement  of 
Sub-Ideas? 

11.  What  consideration  may  modify  this  primary  law? 

12.  Where  great  opposition  to  view   of  speaker,  exists,  what 
modification  is  then  needed? 

13.  State  fully  what  governs  the  effective  Amplification  of  the 
Sub-Ideas. 

CHAPTER  XX. 

THE   INTRODUCTION    AND   THE    CONCLUSION. 

1.  What  are  the  Four  Requisites   the  Introduction  may  de- 
mand? 

2.  State  fully  how  Good  Will  Toward  Speaker  may  be  at- 
tained? 

3.  Mention  an  example  of  the  effective  attainment  of  Good 
Will  Toward  Speaker  and  show  wherein  it  is  effective. 

4.  How  is  the  Statement  of  Purpose  best  attained? 

5.  Give  an  example  of  an  effective  Statement  of  Purpose,  and 
show  wherein  it  is  effective. 

G.     How  is  ''Good  Will  Toward  Purpose  best  attained?    Give 
an  example  and  justify  it. 

7.  State  fully  how  Interest  in  Development  may  be  aroused. 

8.  Mention  two  examples  of  attaining  Interest  in  Development 
and  show  wherein  they  are  eft'ective. 

9.  State  the  great   law  that  governs   the   Introduction  as   a 
whole. 

10.  What  constitutes  an  effective  Conclusion? 

CHAPTER  XXI. 

ORATORICAL   STYLE. 

1.  Under  what  must  Oratorical  Style  necessarily  fall? 

2.  What  is  the  great  essential  in  Oratorical  Style?     Why  is 
it  the  great  essential  and  what  forms  does  it  call  for? 

3.  State  a  further  requisite  in  Oratorical  Style,  and  inaicata 
why  it  is  necessary  and  the  forms  of  expression  it  demands. 


312  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

4.  State  a  third  need  in  Oratorical  Style   and  the  kind   of 
expression  it  demands. 

5.  Define  Repetition ;  give  an  example  and  state  the  value  of 
Repetition. 

6.  Define  Ridicule;  give  an  example;   state  when  Ridicule  is 
justified  and  discuss  whether  skill  in  Ridicule  can  be  acquired. 

J.     (a)     Define   Originality  in   Thought   and   Expression   and 
give  an  example  of  it. 

(b)  Indicate  at  least  three  instances  Tvhere  there  is  orig- 

inality in  the  example  from  Edward  Everett. 

(c)  Mention  an  example  of  originality  in  thought  alone, 

and  an  example  of  originality  in  phrase. 

(d)  Discuss  the  helps  to  attaining  skill  in  Originality  in 

Thought   and  Expression. 

8,  (a)     Define  Contrast;  give  an  example  of  it  and  say  when 

the  use  of  Contrast  is  justified. 

(b)  Mention  three  examples  of  Contrast  and  briefly  dis- 

cuss them. 

(c)  Can  Contrast  be  used  for  humorous  effect!     If  so, 

illustrate. 

9.  (a)     Define,  give  an  example  and  indicate  the  value  of 

Comparison, 
(b)     Wherein   lies   the   force    of   the   Christian   Endeavor 
example? 

10.  (a)     Show  clearly  the  difference  between  Comparison  and 

Contrast. 

(b)  Show  how  both  Comparison  and  Contrast  might  be 

used  in  the  same  speech  to  advantage. 

(c)  What  general  law  governs  the  effective  use  of  Com- 

parison and  Contrast? 

11.  (a)     Define,   give  an  example  and  indicate  the  value   of 

Climax. 

(b)  Name  the  kinds  of  Climax  and  illustrate  and  define 

them. 

(c)  Mention  one  humorous  Climax. 

(d)  Give  an  instance  of  a  Double  Climax. 

(e)  Has  Climax  been  much  used  by  speakers? 

(f )  Discuss  fully  how  skill  in  Climax  is  attained. 

(g)  What  caution  must  be  observed  in  respect  to  Climax? 

12.  Define,  give  examples  and  indicate  the  value  of  Epithet. 
l£      What  is  Interrogation  and  wherein  lies  its  value? 


QUESTIONS  313 

14.  What  is  the  law  in  respect  to  the  Former  Forms  of  Sup- 
port in  which  the  various  kinds  of  Oratorical  Style  shall  be 
phrased  ? 

CHAPTER  XXII. 

SELF-QUESTIONING. 

1.  State  fully,  why,  as  a  rule,  thinking  should  precede  readlog, 
in  the  preparation  of  a  speech? 

2.  Mention  a  method  that  will  help  to  provoke  thought. 

3.  Illustrate  how  the  use  of  the  query  "what"  aids  in  think- 
ing. 

4.  Set  down  the  Three  Series  of  Query  Helps. 

CHAPTER  XXIII. 

READING. 

1.  State  fully  the  value  of  the  habit  of  comparison  and  infer- 
ence in  reading. 

2.  What  constitutes  a  clear  perception  of  the  nature  of  Asser- 
tions? 

3.  What  must  the  reader  distinguish  in  respect  to  Supportsd 
Assertions? 

4.  State  fully  the  method  of  acquiring  illustrative  material 
and  give  an  example. 

5.  What  kind  of  humorous  story  is  preferable  as  illustrative 
material,  and  give  an  illustration. 

6.  What  is  the  preferable  way  to  fix  illustrative  matter  in 
the  mind? 

7.  Discuss  fully  Memory  and  its  helps. 

CHAPTER   XXIV. 

THE   AFTER-DINNER    SPEECH. 

1.  Name,  define  and  justify  the  three  essentials  of  the  After- 
Dinner  Speech. 

2.  What  other  observance  besides  that  of  the  three  essentials 
is  usually  wise? 

3.  What   questions   should   the    After-Dinner   speaker  piit   to 
himself  in  the  preparation  of  his  speech  f 


314  EFFECTIVE  SPEAKING 

4.     Make  a  careful  analysis  of  Mark  Twain's  speech  "The 
Babies, ' '  and  show  the  elements  of  structure  and  style  he  has  used. 

CHAPTER   XXV. 

1.     Give  a  brief  summary  of  the  main  points  discussed  through- 
out the  book 


INDEX  OF  QUOTATIONS. 


Adams,  Chas.,  185,  187. 
Arnold,  Edwin,  98. 
Arnold,  Matthew,   184. 
Balfour,  A.  J.,  182,  187. 
Bancroft,  Geo.,  124. 
Beecher,  Henry  Ward,  111. 
Bergen,  T.  G.,'l97. 
Bible,  42,  101,  136. 
Birrell,  Augustine,  187. 
Blaine,  James,  G.,  92. 
Brooks,  Phillips,  145. 
Bryan,  W.  J.,  125,  167. 
Bryant,  Win.  Cullen,  100. 
Bunlette,  Robert  J.,  117. 
Chatham,  Lord,  94,  115. 
Channing,  W.  K.,  106. 
Choate,  Joseph  H.,  130. 
Christian  Herald,  138. 
Clark,  Francis  E.,  193. 
Collins,  Patrick.  195. 
Curtis,  George  T.,  196. 
Dawson,  George,  189. 
Demosthenes,  100,  190. 
Dickens,  Charles,  21. 
Everett,  Edward,  122,  185. 
Farrar,  F.  W.,  104,  106. 
Fenelon.  199. 
Fields,  J.  T.,  110,  180. 
Gordon,  J.  B.,  176. 
Gough,  John  B.,  175. 
Hazlitt,  William,  194. 
Harper's  Weekly,  83. 
Henry,  Patrick,  61,  200. 
Holm'es.  Oliver  W.,  129,  187. 
Hugo,  Victor,  92,  178. 
Huxley,  Thomas,  136. 
Ingersoll,  Robert  G.,  107,  139, 
177,  184,  191. 


Landon,  M.  D.,  210. 
Lord,  John,  189. 
Lowell,  Jas.  R.,  186. 
Macaulay,  T.  B.,  144. 
MacLaren,  Alex.,  95. 
Madden,  Mabel  B.,  135. 
Meagher,  J.  F.,  123. 
Mitford,  Miss,  97. 
McAndrews,    Wm.,    137. 
Porter,  Horace,  192. 
Ruskin,  John,  195. 

Shakespeare,    William, 

Antony  and  Cleopatra,  73. 

As  You  Like  It,  69. 

Coriolanus,  53. 

Hamlet,  43. 

Henry  V.,  23,  68,  115. 

Henry  IV.,  Pt.  I.,  44,  94,  99. 

Henry  IV.,  Pt.  II.,  55. 

King  John,  43. 

Julius  Ca'sar,  22,  52,  70,  184. 

Macbeth,  39,  67. 

Merry  Wives  of  Windsor,  65. 

Richard  III.,  58. 

Richard  II.,  93. 

Romeo  and  Juliet,  20,  41. 

Spencer,  Herbert,  112. 
Steele,  David,  209. 
Storrs,  Richard,  119. 
Talmago,  T.  D.,  7«. 
Thurston,  John  M.,  128. 
Twain,  Mark,  23,  98,  196,  216. 
Vance,  Z.,  178. 

Webster,  Daniel,  109,  116,  183. 
Winslow,  H.  L.,  112. 
Winthrop,  R.  C,  128. 


t:!itvc  y 


S 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 

Los  Angeles 
This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


Form  L9-Series  444 


L 


UNIVERSITY  OF  C AUFOHNI A-LOS  ANQELES 

jiMi  III  III!  HI  i;  11 11 II II I  III  I  in  III  III 


L  007  772  087  8 


^.-y    '^^ 


L      L 


